2.3 Natural theology

Natural theology seeks to understand God through reason and observation of the natural world. This approach, distinct from revealed theology, has a rich history spanning ancient Greek philosophy to modern debates on science and religion.

Key figures like Aquinas and Paley developed influential arguments for God's existence. Contemporary thinkers continue to explore the compatibility of faith and reason, addressing challenges from science and philosophy.

Definition of natural theology

• Natural theology is the study of God and religious truths through the use of reason, logic, and observation of the natural world rather than relying on divine revelation or scripture
• Seeks to demonstrate the existence and attributes of God through arguments based on empirical evidence and philosophical reasoning
• Differs from revealed theology which relies on religious texts, prophetic revelations, or other supernatural sources of knowledge about the divine

History of natural theology

Ancient Greek origins

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• The ancient Greek philosophers, particularly Plato and Aristotle, engaged in early forms of natural theology by using reason to contemplate the nature of the divine and the cosmos
• Plato's concept of the Demiurge, a divine craftsman who shaped the universe according to eternal forms, influenced later natural theologians (Timaeus)
• Aristotle's Prime Mover argument, which posited an unmoved mover as the ultimate cause of motion in the universe, became a foundation for later cosmological arguments for God's existence
• Stoic philosophers developed the concept of the Logos, a rational principle pervading the cosmos, which was later incorporated into Christian natural theology

Medieval Christian developments

• Medieval Christian thinkers, such as Anselm of Canterbury and Thomas Aquinas, developed sophisticated arguments for God's existence based on reason and observation of the natural world
• Anselm's ontological argument attempted to prove God's existence through the very concept of God as a being greater than which none can be conceived (Proslogion)
• Aquinas' Five Ways included cosmological, teleological, and ontological arguments drawing upon Aristotelian philosophy and the concept of causation (Summa Theologica)
• Natural theology was seen as complementary to revealed theology, with reason and faith working together to provide a comprehensive understanding of God

Enlightenment era debates

• The Enlightenment period saw intense debates over the role of reason and empirical evidence in understanding God and religion
• Deists, such as Voltaire and Thomas Paine, embraced natural theology while rejecting revealed religion and miracles, arguing that God's existence could be known through reason alone (Age of Reason)
• Skeptics, such as David Hume, challenged the validity of natural theological arguments, particularly the design argument, and questioned the compatibility of reason and faith (Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion)
• The rise of modern science and the mechanistic worldview led some thinkers to see natural theology as a way to reconcile religion with the findings of science, while others saw them as incompatible

Arguments for God's existence

Cosmological arguments

• Cosmological arguments seek to demonstrate God's existence as the ultimate cause or explanation for the existence of the universe
• The Kalam cosmological argument, developed by Islamic theologians and later adopted by Christian philosophers, argues that the universe had a beginning and therefore requires a transcendent cause (William Lane Craig)
• Aquinas' First Way, or the argument from motion, contends that the existence of change and motion in the universe necessitates an unmoved mover, which is identified as God
• The contingency argument holds that the existence of contingent beings, which could have failed to exist, ultimately depends on a necessary being, which is God

Teleological arguments

• Teleological arguments, also known as design arguments, seek to infer God's existence from the apparent design, order, and purpose in the natural world
• William Paley's watchmaker analogy compares the intricate design of the universe to a watch, arguing that just as a watch implies a watchmaker, the universe implies a divine designer (Natural Theology)
• The fine-tuning argument contends that the precise values of physical constants and the initial conditions of the universe are so improbable that they point to a cosmic designer
• The argument from biological complexity holds that the intricate structures and systems found in living organisms, such as the bacterial flagellum, are best explained by intelligent design rather than unguided evolution

Ontological arguments

• Ontological arguments attempt to demonstrate God's existence through the very concept of God as a maximally great or perfect being
• Anselm's ontological argument defines God as "that than which nothing greater can be conceived" and argues that such a being must necessarily exist in reality, not merely as an idea in the mind
• Descartes' ontological argument contends that the idea of God as a supremely perfect being, which includes necessary existence, could only have originated from God himself (Meditations on First Philosophy)
• Critics, such as Kant, have challenged the validity of ontological arguments, arguing that existence is not a property that can be included in the concept of a thing

Moral arguments

• Moral arguments seek to establish God's existence as the best explanation for the existence of objective moral values and duties
• The argument from moral normativity contends that the binding nature of moral obligations points to a transcendent moral lawgiver, which is God
• The argument from moral intuition holds that our innate sense of right and wrong, as well as the universal recognition of certain moral principles, is best explained by a divine source of morality
• The moral argument from evil and suffering maintains that the existence of God provides the necessary foundation for recognizing and confronting evil, as well as the ultimate hope for moral redemption and justice

Criticisms of natural theology

Hume's objections

• David Hume, in his Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, raised several influential objections to the design argument and natural theology more broadly
• Hume challenged the analogy between human artifacts and the universe, arguing that the dissimilarities between the two undermine the inference to a divine designer
• He proposed alternative explanations for the apparent design in nature, such as the possibility of multiple finite designers or the chance emergence of order through an infinite series of trials
• Hume also questioned the reliability of human reason in discerning the attributes of God, suggesting that a limited and imperfect world could just as well imply a limited and imperfect creator

Kant's objections

• Immanuel Kant, in his Critique of Pure Reason, argued that traditional arguments for God's existence, including cosmological and ontological arguments, are based on invalid reasoning
• Kant contended that the cosmological argument commits the fallacy of composition by inferring that the universe as a whole must have a cause simply because its parts have causes
• He also rejected the ontological argument, claiming that existence is not a property that can be included in the concept of a thing, and that the argument relies on the invalid inference from thought to reality
• Kant proposed that God's existence cannot be proved through theoretical reason but is instead a postulate of practical reason, necessary for morality and the highest good

Darwin's challenge

• Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection posed a significant challenge to the design argument and the concept of a purposefully created universe
• Darwin provided a naturalistic explanation for the complexity and adaptations observed in living organisms, rendering the design argument less compelling
• The existence of suboptimal design, vestigial structures, and the problem of animal suffering raised questions about the benevolence and omnipotence of a divine designer
• Some theologians, such as Asa Gray, sought to reconcile evolution with natural theology by proposing that God guides the evolutionary process, while others rejected evolution as incompatible with their religious beliefs

Natural theology vs revealed theology

• Natural theology and revealed theology are two distinct approaches to understanding God and religious truths
• Natural theology relies on reason, logic, and empirical observation to demonstrate God's existence and attributes, while revealed theology depends on divine revelation, scriptures, and religious experiences
• Proponents of natural theology argue that it provides a common ground for dialogue between believers and non-believers, as it appeals to shared standards of rationality and evidence
• Advocates of revealed theology contend that natural theology is limited in its ability to fully comprehend the nature of God and that revealed truths are necessary for a complete understanding of the divine
• Some thinkers, such as Thomas Aquinas, have sought to harmonize natural and revealed theology, viewing them as complementary paths to knowledge of God, while others have emphasized the primacy of one approach over the other

Natural theology in world religions

Natural theology in Islam

• Islamic philosophers, such as Al-Kindi, Al-Farabi, and Avicenna, developed sophisticated arguments for God's existence and attributes based on reason and observation of the natural world
• The Kalam cosmological argument, which argues for a temporal beginning of the universe and the necessity of a transcendent cause, originated in Islamic theology and was later adopted by Christian thinkers
• The teleological argument, or the argument from design, was also prominent in Islamic natural theology, with thinkers such as Al-Ghazali using examples from nature to infer the existence of a wise and purposeful creator
• Islamic natural theology often emphasized the unity and simplicity of God (tawhid) and sought to demonstrate the coherence of reason and revelation in understanding the divine

Natural theology in Hinduism

• Hindu philosophical traditions, such as Nyaya and Vaisheshika, engaged in natural theological reasoning to establish the existence and nature of God (Ishvara)
• The cosmological argument, known as the Ishvara Karma Adhyaksha Anumana, contends that the orderly arrangement of the universe requires a supreme intelligent being as its cause and overseer
• The teleological argument, or the Ishvara Krita Anumana, infers the existence of God from the purposeful design observed in the natural world, such as the intricate structure of the human eye
• Some Hindu thinkers, such as Udayana, formulated arguments for God's existence based on the need for a moral lawgiver and the source of ethical values
• Natural theology in Hinduism is often seen as complementary to revealed knowledge gained through the Vedas and other sacred texts

Natural theology in Buddhism

• Buddhism, as a non-theistic religion, does not traditionally engage in arguments for the existence of a creator God or supreme being
• However, some Buddhist thinkers have used natural theological reasoning to explore the nature of reality, causality, and the origins of the universe
• The Buddhist philosopher Dharmakirti developed a version of the cosmological argument, known as the Vajra Splinter inference, which argues for the existence of a first cause that is not itself caused
• Buddhist natural theology often emphasizes the interdependence and impermanence of all phenomena, as well as the role of karma in shaping the causal structure of the universe
• Some modern Buddhist thinkers, such as the Dalai Lama, have engaged in dialogue with Western philosophers and scientists, exploring the compatibility of Buddhist insights with contemporary natural theology and science

Contemporary perspectives

Intelligent design movement

• The intelligent design movement emerged in the late 20th century as a challenge to the dominant neo-Darwinian paradigm in biology and a revitalization of the design argument
• Proponents of intelligent design, such as Michael Behe and William Dembski, argue that certain features of the natural world, such as irreducible complexity and specified complexity, are best explained by an intelligent cause rather than unguided natural processes
• Behe's concept of irreducible complexity holds that some biological systems, like the bacterial flagellum, cannot have evolved gradually through natural selection because the removal of any one part renders the system non-functional
• Dembski's notion of specified complexity contends that the presence of both high improbability and a specified pattern in a system, such as the information content of DNA, points to intelligent design
• Critics argue that intelligent design is not a scientific theory but a form of creationism, and that its arguments have been refuted by advances in evolutionary biology and information theory

Theistic evolution

• Theistic evolution is a perspective that seeks to reconcile the scientific theory of evolution with belief in a creator God who guides and sustains the evolutionary process
• Proponents of theistic evolution, such as Francis Collins and Kenneth Miller, argue that the mechanisms of evolution, including natural selection and genetic mutation, are compatible with divine providence and purpose
• Theistic evolutionists often emphasize the distinction between methodological naturalism, which is necessary for scientific inquiry, and philosophical naturalism, which they reject as a metaphysical stance
• Some theistic evolutionists propose that God has endowed the universe with the necessary laws and initial conditions to bring about the emergence of life and consciousness through evolutionary processes
• Critics of theistic evolution, from both atheistic and creationist perspectives, argue that it is an unstable compromise that fails to fully embrace either scientific naturalism or biblical literalism

Science and natural theology

• The relationship between science and natural theology has been a subject of ongoing debate and dialogue in contemporary philosophy and theology
• Some thinkers, such as Alister McGrath and John Polkinghorne, argue that science and natural theology can be mutually enriching, with scientific discoveries providing new insights into the nature of God and the universe
• The anthropic principle, which notes the fine-tuned nature of the universe for the emergence of life and consciousness, has been used as a modern version of the design argument, suggesting a cosmic purpose or intelligence
• The Big Bang theory and the concept of a temporal origin of the universe have been incorporated into contemporary cosmological arguments for God's existence, such as the Kalam cosmological argument
• However, some philosophers and scientists, such as Richard Dawkins and Daniel Dennett, contend that the success of naturalistic explanations in science undermines the need for supernatural causes and renders natural theology obsolete

Implications for faith and reason

Compatibility of science and religion

• The compatibility of science and religion has been a central concern in discussions of natural theology and the relationship between faith and reason
• Some thinkers, such as Stephen Jay Gould, have proposed a model of non-overlapping magisteria (NOMA), which holds that science and religion occupy separate domains of inquiry and cannot be in conflict
• Others, such as Alvin Plantinga and Richard Swinburne, have argued for the rational credibility of religious belief and the possibility of a fruitful dialogue between science and theology
• The concept of two books, the book of nature and the book of scripture, has been used to suggest that scientific investigation and religious revelation can provide complementary paths to truth
• However, some argue that the methods and assumptions of science, particularly methodological naturalism, are incompatible with the supernatural claims of religion and that any apparent harmony is superficial

Limits of natural theology

• While natural theology has played a significant role in the history of religious thought, its limitations and challenges have also been widely recognized
• The problem of evil, particularly the existence of seemingly gratuitous suffering in the world, poses a significant challenge to arguments for the existence of an all-good, all-powerful God
• The diversity of religious beliefs and the apparent dependence of religious convictions on cultural and historical contexts raise questions about the reliability of reason in discerning religious truths
• Some argue that the personal and experiential aspects of religious faith cannot be fully captured by the abstract arguments of natural theology, which may neglect the role of divine revelation and religious practice
• Postmodern and post-structuralist critiques have challenged the universality and objectivity of reason, suggesting that all knowledge, including natural theology, is shaped by social, linguistic, and historical factors

Notable figures in natural theology

Thomas Aquinas

• Thomas Aquinas, a 13th-century Dominican friar and theologian, is one of the most influential figures in the history of natural theology
• Aquinas' Five Ways, presented in his Summa Theologica, are a series of arguments for the existence of God based on reason and observation of the natural world
• The First Way, or the argument from motion, contends that the existence of change and motion in the universe requires an unmoved mover, which is identified as God
• The Second Way, or the argument from efficient causation, holds that the series of causes in the universe must ultimately trace back to a first cause, which is God
• The Third Way, or the argument from contingency, argues that the existence of contingent beings, which could have failed to exist, depends on a necessary being, which is God
• The Fourth Way, or the argument from gradation, infers the existence of a maximum standard of perfection, which is God, from the varying degrees of perfection observed in the world
• The Fifth Way, or the teleological argument, contends that the purposeful and orderly nature of the universe points to an intelligent designer, which is God

William Paley

• William Paley, an 18th-century English clergyman and philosopher, is best known for his influential formulation of the design argument in his work Natural Theology
• Paley's watchmaker analogy compares the intricate design of the universe to a watch, arguing that just as a watch implies a watchmaker, the universe implies a divine designer
• He contends that the complex and purposeful structures observed in nature, such as the human eye, cannot be explained by chance or necessity but require an intelligent cause
• Paley's argument was widely influential in the 19th century and was seen as a powerful defense of the existence of God and the compatibility of science and religion
• However, his argument was challenged by the emergence of Darwin's theory of evolution, which provided a naturalistic explanation for the apparent design in living organisms
• Despite these challenges, Paley's watchmaker analogy remains a classic example of the design argument and continues to be discussed in contemporary debates on natural theology and intelligent design

Richard Swinburne

• Richard Swinburne, a contemporary British philosopher and theologian, is a prominent defender of natural theology and the rationality of religious belief
• Swinburne has developed a comprehensive probabilistic approach to arguments for God's existence, drawing on insights from science, philosophy, and theology
• In his book The Existence of God, Swinburne presents a cumulative case for theism based on various lines of evidence, including cosmological, teleological, and moral arguments
• He argues that the simplicity and explanatory power of theism, particularly the hypothesis of a personal God, make it more probable than alternative naturalistic or pantheistic explanations
• Swinburne also defends the coherence and plausibility of specific Christian doctrines, such as the Incarnation and the Resurrection, using probabilistic reasoning and historical evidence
• His work has been influential in contemporary philosophy of religion and has sparked debates on the relationship between faith and reason, the nature