2.5 Notable rebellions and uprisings

Black women's resistance in America has deep roots in slavery, shaping centuries of struggle for freedom and equality. From work slowdowns to secret communication networks, enslaved women employed various tactics to resist oppression and maintain their cultural heritage.

Notable rebellions like the Stono Rebellion and Gabriel's Rebellion challenged the institution of slavery, often with women playing crucial roles. The Underground Railroad relied heavily on Black women's courage and organizational skills, with figures like Harriet Tubman leading hundreds to freedom.

Origins of resistance

• Resistance movements among Black women in America trace their roots to the brutal institution of slavery, shaping centuries of struggle for freedom and equality
• These early forms of resistance laid the groundwork for future organized rebellions and civil rights movements, demonstrating the resilience and strength of Black women throughout history

Roots in slavery

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• Enslaved women employed various forms of resistance including work slowdowns, feigning illness, and sabotage of plantation equipment
• Infanticide emerged as a desperate act of resistance, with some enslaved mothers choosing to end their children's lives rather than subject them to slavery
• Enslaved women often maintained secret communication networks to share information and plan escapes
• Sexual resistance included refusal of sexual advances, abortion, and infanticide to deny slaveholders additional property

Influence of African traditions

• African spiritual practices provided strength and unity among enslaved communities, often disguised within Christian worship
• Storytelling and oral traditions preserved African cultural heritage and passed down resistance strategies
• Traditional African healing practices were maintained and adapted, providing both medical care and a form of cultural resistance
• Retention of African naming customs allowed enslaved people to maintain connections to their heritage and resist complete cultural erasure

Major rebellions

• Large-scale slave rebellions in America demonstrated the collective power and organization of enslaved communities, often led or supported by women
• These uprisings challenged the institution of slavery and instilled fear in slaveholders, leading to increased restrictions and surveillance of enslaved populations

Stono Rebellion of 1739

• Largest slave uprising in British North America occurred in South Carolina
• Rebels killed 20-25 white colonists and destroyed several plantations
• Rebellion lasted several days before being violently suppressed by colonial militia
• Led to the Negro Act of 1740, restricting enslaved people's rights and movements
• Women played crucial support roles in planning and providing resources for the rebels

New York Slave Revolt of 1741

• Series of fires and alleged plots led to mass hysteria and accusations of a slave conspiracy
• Over 100 Black people and several whites were arrested, with 30 executed and 70 deported
• Women were among those accused and executed, including Peggy Kerry and Sarah Hughson
• Resulted in increased restrictions on enslaved people in New York City
• Debate continues over whether an actual organized revolt existed or if it was mass paranoia

Gabriel's Rebellion of 1800

• Planned large-scale slave revolt in Richmond, Virginia, organized by Gabriel Prosser
• Aimed to create an egalitarian society by seizing Richmond and negotiating with the government
• Plot was betrayed by fellow slaves, leading to arrests and executions
• Gabriel's wife Nanny played a key role in planning and recruiting for the rebellion
• Failure of the rebellion led to stricter slave codes and increased restrictions on slave gatherings

Women-led uprisings

• Black women often took leadership roles in resistance movements, challenging both racial and gender oppression
• These women-led uprisings demonstrated the intersectionality of race and gender in the fight for freedom and equality

Carlota's Rebellion in Cuba

• Led by an enslaved Yoruba woman named Carlota in 1843 at the Triunvirato sugar mill
• Rebellion spread to neighboring plantations and lasted for a year
• Carlota used talking drums to communicate and coordinate attacks across plantations
• She was eventually captured and executed, but her rebellion inspired future resistance movements
• Carlota's actions challenged both racial and gender norms of the time

Nanny of the Maroons

• Legendary leader of the Jamaican Maroons in the early 18th century
• Led guerrilla warfare against British colonial forces for over 30 years
• Established and governed a free Maroon community called Nanny Town
• Skilled in guerrilla tactics and said to have supernatural abilities to protect her people
• Her leadership and military strategies influenced future resistance movements in the Caribbean and Americas

Underground Railroad

• The Underground Railroad was a network of secret routes and safe houses used by enslaved African Americans to escape to free states and Canada
• This system of resistance relied heavily on the courage and organizational skills of both free and enslaved Black women

Role of Black women

• Women served as conductors, guiding escaped slaves to freedom (Harriet Tubman)
• Provided safe houses and hiding places for fugitives (Harriet Jacobs)
• Gathered intelligence and planned escape routes (Mary Ellen Pleasant)
• Raised funds to support the Underground Railroad's operations (Elizabeth Keckley)
• Educated and cared for newly freed slaves upon reaching free territories (Sojourner Truth)

Notable conductors

• Harriet Tubman, known as "Moses," led over 300 slaves to freedom through multiple trips
• Jane Lewis operated a major Underground Railroad station in New Richmond, Ohio
• Laura Haviland established the Raisin Institute in Michigan to educate Black children
• Henrietta Bowers Duterte used her funeral home business as a cover for Underground Railroad activities
• Frances Ellen Watkins Harper combined her work as a conductor with her career as a writer and activist

Slave ship revolts

• Rebellions on slave ships were high-risk attempts at freedom that occurred during the Middle Passage
• These revolts, though often unsuccessful, demonstrated the unwavering resistance of enslaved Africans from the moment of their capture

Amistad uprising

• Occurred in 1839 aboard the Spanish schooner La Amistad
• Led by Sengbe Pieh (Joseph Cinqué), the rebels successfully took control of the ship
• Enslaved women on board, including Margu and Kagne, played supporting roles in the rebellion
• The Amistad was eventually seized by the U.S. Navy, leading to a landmark legal case
• Supreme Court ruled in favor of the Africans' freedom, setting an important legal precedent

Creole case

• Rebellion took place in 1841 on the brig Creole, transporting slaves from Virginia to New Orleans
• Led by Madison Washington, with support from 18 other enslaved people, including women
• Rebels successfully redirected the ship to Nassau, Bahamas, a British territory where slavery was illegal
• British authorities freed 128 enslaved people, causing diplomatic tensions between the U.S. and Britain
• Case highlighted the complexities of international law regarding slavery and inspired future resistance

Civil War era resistance

• During the American Civil War, Black women engaged in various forms of resistance, both on and off the battlefield
• These acts of resistance contributed significantly to the Union's victory and the eventual abolition of slavery

Harriet Tubman's military exploits

• Served as a scout, spy, and nurse for the Union Army
• Led the Combahee River Raid in 1863, freeing over 700 slaves in a single operation
• First woman to lead an armed expedition in the Civil War
• Provided valuable intelligence on Confederate troop movements and supply lines
• Continued her work with the Underground Railroad throughout the war, adapting to wartime conditions

Black women spies

• Mary Bowser, a former slave, worked as a spy in the household of Confederate President Jefferson Davis
• Harriet Jacobs used her journalism skills to gather and relay information to Union forces
• Elizabeth Van Lew ran an extensive spy ring in Richmond, Virginia, often recruiting and relying on Black women for intelligence
• Mary Elizabeth Bowser posed as an illiterate slave in the Confederate White House, passing information to Union forces
• Susie King Taylor served as a nurse and teacher for Black Union soldiers while also gathering intelligence

Post-emancipation uprisings

• Following the Civil War and emancipation, Black communities faced continued oppression and violence, leading to various forms of resistance and rebellion
• These post-emancipation uprisings highlighted the ongoing struggle for true equality and civil rights

Memphis riots of 1866

• Violent clash between white police officers and Black Union soldiers in Memphis, Tennessee
• Resulted in the deaths of 46 Black people and destruction of Black schools, churches, and homes
• Black women, including Rachel Perkins and Frances Thompson, testified before Congress about the violence they experienced
• Riots led to increased support for the 14th Amendment and civil rights legislation
• Demonstrated the ongoing racial tensions and violence in the post-Civil War South

Wilmington insurrection of 1898

• Only successful coup d'état in U.S. history, overthrowing the elected biracial government of Wilmington, North Carolina
• White supremacists used violence and intimidation to seize power and disenfranchise Black citizens
• Black women, such as Felicia Holton and Mary C. Telfair, played crucial roles in protecting their communities during the violence
• Led to the implementation of Jim Crow laws and disenfranchisement of Black voters in North Carolina
• Marked a turning point in the erosion of Black political and economic power in the post-Reconstruction South

20th century rebellions

• The early 20th century saw continued racial violence and oppression, leading to significant uprisings and protests by Black communities
• These rebellions challenged the racial status quo and laid the groundwork for the Civil Rights Movement

Tulsa Race Massacre of 1921

• Destruction of the prosperous Black community of Greenwood in Tulsa, Oklahoma, known as "Black Wall Street"
• Triggered by false accusations of a Black man assaulting a white woman
• Resulted in the deaths of hundreds of Black residents and destruction of over 35 city blocks
• Black women like Mary E. Jones Parrish documented the massacre and its aftermath
• Led to long-term economic devastation for Tulsa's Black community and suppression of the event's history

Harlem riot of 1935

• Sparked by rumors of police brutality against a young Black Puerto Rican boy in Harlem, New York
• First modern race riot, with Black residents actively confronting police and destroying property
• Women played significant roles in the riot, including participating in looting and confronting authorities
• Exposed racial tensions and economic disparities in Northern cities
• Led to the formation of the Mayor's Commission on Conditions in Harlem to address community grievances

Civil Rights era protests

• The Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s saw widespread organized resistance against racial segregation and discrimination
• Black women were at the forefront of many of these protests, challenging both racial and gender barriers

Montgomery Bus Boycott

• 381-day protest against racial segregation on public buses in Montgomery, Alabama
• Sparked by Rosa Parks' refusal to give up her bus seat to a white passenger
• Jo Ann Robinson and the Women's Political Council played crucial roles in organizing and sustaining the boycott
• Led to a Supreme Court decision declaring bus segregation unconstitutional
• Launched Martin Luther King Jr.'s career and set the stage for future civil rights campaigns

Sit-ins and freedom rides

• Sit-ins at segregated lunch counters began in 1960, with women like Diane Nash playing key organizing roles
• Freedom Rides of 1961 challenged segregation in interstate transportation
• Women participants faced severe violence and imprisonment (Diane Nash, Joan Trumpauer Mulholland)
• These tactics of nonviolent direct action became central to the Civil Rights Movement
• Highlighted the courage and determination of young activists in challenging racial segregation

Modern resistance movements

• Contemporary Black resistance movements continue to address systemic racism and police brutality
• These movements often center the experiences of Black women and LGBTQ+ individuals, highlighting intersectional approaches to activism

Black Lives Matter

• Founded in 2013 by three Black women: Alicia Garza, Patrisse Cullors, and Opal Tometi
• Decentralized movement focused on combating police brutality and systemic racism
• Utilizes social media and grassroots organizing to mobilize protests and raise awareness
• Emphasizes intersectionality and centers the experiences of Black women and LGBTQ+ individuals
• Has sparked global conversations about racial justice and led to policy changes in policing and criminal justice

Say Her Name campaign

• Launched in 2014 to address the often-overlooked police violence against Black women and girls
• Highlights cases of Black women killed by police (Sandra Bland, Breonna Taylor)
• Challenges the male-centric narrative of police brutality in media and activism
• Advocates for policy changes and increased awareness of violence against Black women
• Intersects with broader movements for gender equality and racial justice

Legacy and impact

• The history of Black women's resistance has profoundly shaped American society and continues to influence contemporary social justice movements
• This legacy is preserved through various forms of cultural memory and commemoration, ensuring that these stories of resistance are not forgotten

Influence on legislation

• Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin
• Voting Rights Act of 1965 outlawed discriminatory voting practices
• Fair Housing Act of 1968 banned discrimination in housing
• Ongoing influence on contemporary legislation addressing racial profiling, police reform, and affirmative action
• Continued advocacy for intersectional approaches to policy-making, addressing both racial and gender disparities

Cultural memory and commemoration

• Establishment of museums and memorials dedicated to Black history and resistance (National Museum of African American History and Culture)
• Incorporation of Black women's resistance into educational curricula and academic studies
• Creation of art, literature, and media celebrating Black women's contributions to resistance movements
• Annual observances and celebrations (Black History Month, Juneteenth)
• Digital archives and oral history projects preserving firsthand accounts of resistance and activism