2.1 Paleolithic and Neolithic Transitions

The Paleolithic era spanned millions of years, marked by ice ages and megafauna. Early humans adapted to harsh environments, developing tools and fire use. This period saw the emergence of Homo sapiens and hunter-gatherer lifestyles.

The Neolithic transition brought agriculture, changing human-environment relationships. Domestication of plants and animals led to settled communities, population growth, and social stratification. This shift had lasting impacts on landscapes, biodiversity, and human societies.

Paleolithic Era

Environmental conditions in Paleolithic era

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• Pleistocene epoch spanned 2.6 million to 11,700 years ago characterized by alternating glacial and interglacial periods
• Colder and drier climate compared to present day resulted in expansive ice sheets and lower sea levels
• Megafauna such as mammoths, woolly rhinos, and giant sloths roamed the Earth alongside early humans
• Fluctuating environmental conditions required human adaptations for survival in challenging landscapes (tundra, grasslands, forests)

Changes during Neolithic transition

• Homo sapiens emerged around 300,000 years ago as the dominant human species with advanced cognitive abilities
• Hunter-gatherer lifestyle involved nomadic movement following animal migrations (reindeer, bison) and seasonal plant resources (berries, nuts)
• Use of fire for warmth, cooking, and protection allowed humans to inhabit colder regions and consume a wider variety of foods
• Creation of stone tools progressed through Oldowan (simple choppers), Acheulean (hand axes), and Mousterian (flake tools) industries
• Development of language and symbolic thought enabled complex communication, social bonding, and cultural transmission

Neolithic Transition

Impact of Neolithic on environment

• Domestication of plants and animals marked the beginning of agriculture
  1. Cultivation of grains (wheat, barley, rice, maize) provided a stable food source
  2. Domestication of animals (sheep, goats, cattle, pigs) for meat, milk, and labor
• Polished stone tools and pottery facilitated food processing, storage, and cooking
• Irrigation and water management techniques allowed for cultivation in arid regions (Mesopotamia, Egypt)
• Sedentism and permanent settlements led to the formation of villages and eventually cities
• Increased population density due to agricultural surpluses and improved living conditions
• Social stratification emerged with specialization of labor (farmers, artisans, priests)
• Religious practices and rituals developed around agricultural cycles and ancestor worship
• Trade networks expanded to exchange goods (obsidian) and ideas between communities

Paleolithic vs Neolithic subsistence strategies

• Intensification of land use through deforestation for agriculture and settlements led to soil erosion and nutrient depletion
• Changes in biodiversity occurred with the decline of wild animal populations due to overhunting and habitat loss
• Spread of domesticated species altered ecosystems and genetic diversity
• Emergence of zoonotic diseases (influenza, measles) due to close contact between humans and animals
• Increased human control over the environment through modification of landscapes (terracing, irrigation canals)
• Population growth and pressure on resources led to increased competition for land and potential for conflict
• Paleolithic subsistence relied on hunting and gathering of wild resources with low population density and limited environmental impact
  • Nomadic lifestyle required constant movement to follow resources
  • Egalitarian social structure with small bands of closely related individuals
• Neolithic subsistence involved agriculture and pastoralism with domesticated species
  • Sedentary lifestyle with permanent settlements and higher population density
  • Hierarchical social organization with larger communities and specialization of labor
  • Significant environmental impact through land clearance, soil erosion, and changes in biodiversity