3.3 American Revolution and Native American involvement

The American Revolution deeply impacted Native American tribes, reshaping alliances and territories. Many sided with the British, while some supported the colonists. This period marked a turning point in Native-colonial relations, setting the stage for future conflicts.

The war's outcome had far-reaching consequences for Native communities. Tribes faced displacement, shifting power dynamics, and new economic realities. The newly formed United States government established policies that would shape Native American status for generations to come.

Native alliances during revolution

• Native American tribes played a crucial role in shaping the outcome of the American Revolution, aligning themselves with either British or colonial forces
• The complex web of alliances formed during this period significantly impacted Native American history and their relationships with the emerging United States
• Understanding these alliances provides insight into the diverse perspectives and motivations of Native American tribes during this pivotal time in American history

British vs colonial allies

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• British forces successfully recruited many Native American tribes as allies due to longstanding trade relationships and promises of protection against colonial expansion
• Mohawk leader Joseph Brant rallied significant Iroquois support for the British cause
• Some tribes, such as the Oneida and Tuscarora, sided with the colonists, creating divisions within confederacies
• Colonial forces struggled to gain widespread Native American support, partly due to their reputation for aggressive westward expansion

Iroquois Confederacy's role

• The powerful Iroquois Confederacy, consisting of six nations (Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, and Tuscarora), split over which side to support
• Mohawk, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca nations generally aligned with the British
• Oneida and Tuscarora nations supported the colonists, providing valuable intelligence and military assistance
• This internal division weakened the Confederacy's political influence and led to long-lasting consequences for their unity and power

Cherokee and southern tribes

• Cherokee initially allied with the British, launching attacks on colonial settlements in the Carolinas and Georgia
• Chickasaw and Choctaw tribes in the Southeast also predominantly supported the British
• Colonial retaliation against Cherokee raids resulted in the destruction of numerous Cherokee towns and crops
• Some Cherokee leaders, such as Dragging Canoe, continued resistance against colonial expansion even after the main Cherokee nation sued for peace

Impact on tribal territories

• The American Revolution profoundly affected Native American land holdings and territorial claims throughout the eastern part of North America
• Shifting alliances and military outcomes during the war led to significant changes in tribal boundaries and control over ancestral lands
• This period marked the beginning of a new era in Native American-U.S. relations regarding land rights and sovereignty

Treaty negotiations

• Post-war treaties often disregarded Native American land claims, particularly for tribes that had allied with the British
• The Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1784) forced Iroquois nations to cede large portions of their territory in New York and Pennsylvania
• Cherokee leaders signed the Treaty of Hopewell (1785), establishing new boundaries and trade relations with the United States
• These treaties often involved complex negotiations and sometimes resulted in intertribal conflicts over competing land claims

Land cessions and disputes

• Tribes that allied with the British faced pressure to cede lands as punishment for their wartime allegiance
• Iroquois Confederacy lost significant territories in western New York and Pennsylvania
• Cherokee ceded lands in Tennessee and parts of Kentucky
• Land disputes between tribes and settlers increased as colonial population expanded westward, leading to ongoing conflicts and further treaty negotiations

Native American military participation

• Native American involvement in the Revolutionary War extended beyond political alliances to active military roles
• Their participation influenced battle outcomes and shaped military strategies on both sides of the conflict
• This involvement had lasting impacts on Native American communities and their relationships with European-descended populations

Scouting and auxiliary roles

• Many Native American warriors served as scouts, providing valuable intelligence on enemy movements and terrain
• Tribes offered logistical support, including supplying food and guiding troops through unfamiliar territories
• Native American allies assisted in guerrilla-style warfare tactics, which proved effective against traditional European military formations
• Some tribes provided safe havens and supply lines for their respective allies

Direct combat involvement

• Iroquois warriors fought in several major battles, including Oriskany and Wyoming Valley
• Cherokee forces conducted raids on colonial settlements in the southern colonies
• Native American combatants often employed traditional warfare tactics, such as ambushes and hit-and-run attacks
• Some Native American leaders, like Joseph Brant, led mixed forces of Native American and European fighters in campaigns

Consequences for Native communities

• The American Revolution had far-reaching and often devastating consequences for Native American communities across the eastern part of North America
• The war's outcome reshaped tribal territories, alliances, and relationships with the newly formed United States
• These consequences set the stage for future conflicts and shaped Native American policy in the early republic

Population displacement

• Many Native American communities were forced to relocate due to territorial losses and conflict
• Iroquois nations that supported the British, such as the Mohawk, migrated to Canada to escape retaliation
• Cherokee and other southern tribes faced pressure to move westward as colonial settlers encroached on their lands
• Displacement led to the fragmentation of tribal groups and the loss of traditional hunting and agricultural lands

Shifting tribal power dynamics

• The Iroquois Confederacy's influence diminished due to internal divisions and territorial losses
• Tribes that allied with the victorious colonists initially gained some political advantages
• New intertribal alliances formed as groups sought to resist further encroachment on their lands
• Some tribes, like the Cherokee, experienced internal political divisions between those who favored accommodation and those who advocated for continued resistance

Post-revolution Native American status

• The conclusion of the American Revolution marked a significant shift in the legal and political status of Native American tribes
• The newly formed United States government had to establish policies for dealing with Native American nations within its claimed territories
• This period set precedents for future Native American-U.S. relations and treaty negotiations

Treaty of Paris implications

• The 1783 Treaty of Paris, which ended the Revolutionary War, ignored Native American land rights and sovereignty
• British cession of territories to the United States included lands belonging to Native American tribes, without their consent or participation in negotiations
• This treaty effectively treated Native American nations as conquered peoples, setting a problematic precedent for future relations
• Many tribes refused to recognize the legitimacy of land transfers made in the Treaty of Paris, leading to ongoing conflicts

US government Indian policies

• The newly formed U.S. government initially attempted to establish peaceful relations with Native American tribes through treaties and trade agreements
• The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 ostensibly recognized Native American land rights, but also set the stage for westward expansion
• Early U.S. Indian policy focused on "civilizing" Native Americans through assimilation programs and land allotment
• The Trade and Intercourse Acts, beginning in 1790, regulated trade with Native American tribes and prohibited land purchases from tribes without federal approval

Cultural and social changes

• The American Revolution catalyzed significant cultural and social transformations within Native American communities
• These changes were driven by both external pressures and internal adaptations to new political and economic realities
• The period following the Revolution saw both increased cultural exchange and efforts to maintain traditional practices

Adoption of European practices

• Some Native American communities began adopting European-style agriculture and animal husbandry
• European clothing styles and manufactured goods became more prevalent among certain tribes
• Christian missionaries gained increased access to Native American communities, leading to religious conversions and the establishment of mission schools
• Some tribes, like the Cherokee, began developing written languages and establishing formal education systems based on European models

Resistance to assimilation

• Many Native American communities actively resisted cultural assimilation, viewing it as a threat to their traditional ways of life
• Religious and spiritual leaders worked to preserve and revitalize traditional beliefs and practices
• Some tribes developed syncretic cultural forms, blending traditional and European elements
• Resistance movements, such as that led by Tecumseh in the early 19th century, sought to unite tribes against further encroachment and cultural erosion

Economic effects on tribes

• The American Revolution and its aftermath significantly disrupted traditional Native American economic systems
• New economic realities emerged as tribes had to adapt to changing territorial boundaries and shifting alliances
• These economic changes had lasting impacts on Native American self-sufficiency and relationships with European-American settlers

Trade disruptions

• Traditional trade networks between Native American tribes and European powers were severely disrupted during and after the war
• British withdrawal from frontier outposts led to the loss of important trading partners for many tribes
• The newly formed United States sought to control and regulate trade with Native American tribes through federal policies
• Some tribes faced economic hardship due to the loss of access to European goods and markets

New economic dependencies

• Many Native American communities became increasingly reliant on trade with the United States for essential goods
• The fur trade declined in importance, leading some tribes to shift towards agriculture and livestock raising
• Government annuities, provided through treaties, became a significant source of income for some tribes
• Some Native American individuals and communities began participating in the cash economy, working as laborers or selling crafts to settlers

Native American leaders

• The American Revolution period saw the emergence of influential Native American leaders who shaped their tribes' responses to the conflict and its aftermath
• These leaders employed various strategies, from diplomacy to armed resistance, in attempts to protect their people's interests
• Their actions and legacies continue to influence Native American history and U.S.-tribal relations

Joseph Brant's influence

• Mohawk leader Thayendanegea, known as Joseph Brant, played a crucial role in aligning much of the Iroquois Confederacy with the British
• Brant led Mohawk and British forces in several campaigns against colonial settlements
• After the war, Brant negotiated with the British to secure land in Canada for displaced Mohawks and other Iroquois
• His efforts to maintain Mohawk sovereignty and adapt to changing circumstances influenced later Native American leadership strategies

Dragging Canoe's resistance

• Cherokee leader Dragging Canoe opposed land cessions to colonial settlers and led a faction of Cherokee in armed resistance
• He established the Chickamauga Cherokee, a breakaway group that continued to fight against American expansion after the main Cherokee nation made peace
• Dragging Canoe's resistance movement inspired other Native American leaders to continue opposing U.S. encroachment in the decades following the Revolution
• His legacy influenced later pan-Indian resistance movements, such as Tecumseh's confederacy in the early 19th century

Long-term impact on sovereignty

• The American Revolution and its aftermath fundamentally altered the concept of Native American sovereignty
• The newly formed United States government established precedents for dealing with Native American nations that would have long-lasting consequences
• These changes in sovereignty recognition and treaty-making processes continue to influence Native American legal and political status today

Tribal nation recognition

• The United States government began formally recognizing certain Native American groups as "domestic dependent nations"
• This recognition acknowledged a degree of tribal sovereignty while still asserting U.S. authority over Native American affairs
• The concept of tribal sovereignty became increasingly complex as the U.S. expanded westward
• Federal recognition processes evolved over time, impacting tribes' ability to maintain their lands, govern themselves, and access government services

Future treaty negotiations

• The post-Revolutionary period set precedents for how the United States would negotiate treaties with Native American nations
• Treaties became the primary means of formalizing relationships between the U.S. government and Native American tribes
• Many treaties involved land cessions in exchange for promises of protection, annuities, or reserved lands
• The practice of treaty-making with Native American nations continued until 1871, when Congress ended the practice, further altering the nature of tribal sovereignty