3.4 New Immigration and Nativism

The late 19th century saw a massive influx of immigrants to the United States, driven by economic opportunities and political instability abroad. Over 20 million newcomers arrived between 1880 and 1920, mostly from Southern and Eastern Europe, settling in urban ethnic enclaves.

This "New Immigration" sparked nativist backlash and restrictive policies like the Chinese Exclusion Act. Despite facing discrimination and harsh conditions, immigrants made vital contributions to America's economy and culture, fueling industrial growth and enriching society with diverse traditions.

Late 19th-Century Immigration

Push and Pull Factors

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• Push factors for the New Immigration included poverty, religious persecution, and political instability in their home countries
  • The Russian pogroms against Jews in the 1880s led to a significant influx of Jewish immigrants seeking refuge from violence and discrimination
  • Political upheavals, such as the failed revolutions of 1848 in Europe, drove many immigrants to seek a more stable political environment in the United States
• Pull factors attracting immigrants to the United States included economic opportunities, religious freedom, and political stability
  • Industrialization and urbanization created a demand for cheap labor in factories and cities, providing job prospects for immigrants
  • The United States' reputation as a land of religious freedom and tolerance attracted immigrants seeking to escape religious persecution in their home countries
  • The stability of the American political system, with its democratic institutions and rule of law, appealed to immigrants from countries with more volatile or oppressive governments

Patterns of Immigration and Settlement

• Between 1880 and 1920, over 20 million immigrants arrived in the United States, primarily from Southern and Eastern Europe, as well as Asia
  • This "New Immigration" differed in origin from the previous waves of immigrants who were mostly from Northern and Western Europe (Germany, Ireland, and Scandinavia)
  • The shift in immigration patterns reflected changing economic, political, and social conditions in Europe and Asia
• Immigrants often settled in ethnic enclaves in major cities, such as New York, Chicago, and Boston, where they could maintain their language, culture, and support networks
  • Ethnic neighborhoods, such as Little Italy, Chinatown, and Polish Hill, provided a sense of community and familiarity for new immigrants
  • These enclaves also served as stepping stones for immigrants to adapt to American society while preserving their cultural heritage
• U.S. immigration policies, such as the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 and the Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907, restricted immigration from Asia while allowing relatively open immigration from Europe until the 1920s
  • The Chinese Exclusion Act prohibited the immigration of Chinese laborers, reflecting anti-Asian sentiment and fears of economic competition
  • The Gentlemen's Agreement with Japan limited Japanese immigration to the United States, primarily in response to anti-Japanese sentiment on the West Coast

Immigrant Adaptation to America

Challenges Faced by Immigrants

• Many immigrants faced language barriers, cultural differences, and discrimination upon arriving in the United States
  • Limited English proficiency made it difficult for immigrants to navigate American society, find employment, and access services
  • Cultural differences in customs, values, and social norms could lead to misunderstandings and conflicts with the dominant American culture
  • Discrimination based on ethnicity, religion, and perceived "racial" differences hindered immigrants' opportunities and acceptance in American society
• Immigrants often worked in low-paying, dangerous jobs in factories, mines, and construction
  • Unskilled labor positions in industries such as steel, textiles, and meatpacking were frequently filled by immigrants willing to accept lower wages and harsher working conditions
  • Hazardous working environments, long hours, and limited labor protections put immigrants at risk of injury, illness, and exploitation
• Living conditions in urban tenements were often overcrowded, unsanitary, and prone to disease outbreaks
  • Jacob Riis's photographs and writings, such as "How the Other Half Lives," exposed the squalid conditions in New York City's tenements
  • Overcrowding, lack of proper sanitation, and poor ventilation contributed to the spread of diseases like tuberculosis and cholera in immigrant neighborhoods

Support Systems and Assimilation

• Immigrants often relied on mutual aid societies, religious institutions, and ethnic community organizations for support and assistance in navigating American society
  • Mutual aid societies provided financial assistance, social support, and cultural activities for members of specific ethnic groups (Italian benevolent societies, Jewish landsmanshaftn)
  • Religious institutions, such as churches and synagogues, served as centers of community life and helped immigrants maintain their faith and cultural traditions
  • Ethnic community organizations, such as the Polish National Alliance and the Greek Orthodox Church, provided a sense of belonging and support for immigrants adjusting to life in the United States
• Public schools played a crucial role in assimilating immigrant children into American culture through English language instruction and the teaching of American history and values
  • Compulsory education laws ensured that immigrant children attended school and learned English, which facilitated their integration into American society
  • Curricula emphasizing American history, civics, and patriotism aimed to instill a sense of national identity and loyalty in immigrant children
  • However, the emphasis on assimilation often came at the expense of immigrants' native languages and cultural traditions, which were sometimes discouraged or suppressed in schools

Nativism and Anti-Immigration

Nativist Movements and Ideologies

• Nativist movements, such as the Know-Nothing Party in the 1850s and the American Protective Association in the 1880s, opposed immigration and sought to preserve the dominance of native-born Protestant Americans
  • The Know-Nothing Party, also known as the American Party, campaigned against Catholic immigration and sought to restrict the political influence of immigrants
  • The American Protective Association, founded in 1887, promoted anti-Catholic and anti-immigrant sentiment, claiming that Catholic immigrants were a threat to American institutions and values
• Pseudo-scientific theories, such as Social Darwinism and eugenics, were used to justify discrimination against immigrants based on perceived racial and cultural inferiority
  • Social Darwinism misapplied the concept of "survival of the fittest" to human societies, arguing that certain races and cultures were inherently superior to others
  • Eugenics promoted the idea that the genetic quality of the population could be improved by restricting the reproduction of "undesirable" groups, including immigrants from certain countries

Restrictive Immigration Policies

• The Immigration Restriction League, founded in 1894, advocated for literacy tests and quotas to limit immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe
  • The League argued that immigrants from these regions were intellectually and morally inferior to those from Northern and Western Europe
  • They lobbied for the implementation of literacy tests as a means of restricting immigration, believing that educated immigrants would be more easily assimilated into American society
• The Quota Acts of the 1920s, including the Emergency Quota Act of 1921 and the National Origins Act of 1924, severely restricted immigration based on national origin
  • These acts established numerical quotas for immigration based on the national origins of the U.S. population in 1890, favoring Northern and Western European immigrants while limiting those from Southern and Eastern Europe and Asia
  • The National Origins Act of 1924 further reduced the overall number of immigrants allowed into the United States and completely excluded immigrants from Asia, except for the Philippines
• The Americanization movement of the early 20th century sought to assimilate immigrants into American culture through English language instruction, citizenship classes, and the promotion of American values
  • The movement, supported by organizations like the Ford Motor Company and the Chamber of Commerce, aimed to create a homogeneous American culture and foster loyalty to the United States
  • Immigrants were encouraged, and sometimes coerced, to abandon their native languages, cultural practices, and allegiances to their countries of origin in favor of embracing American customs and values

Immigrant Contributions to America

Economic Contributions

• Immigrants provided a significant source of labor for the nation's expanding industries, such as steel, textiles, and meatpacking
  • The rapid growth of American industry in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was fueled in part by the availability of immigrant labor
  • Immigrants filled demanding and often dangerous positions in factories, mills, and slaughterhouses, contributing to the production of goods and the growth of the American economy
• Immigrants also worked in the construction of railroads and other infrastructure projects
  • Chinese immigrants played a crucial role in the construction of the First Transcontinental Railroad, which connected the eastern and western United States
  • Immigrant labor was essential in the building of roads, bridges, and canals, which facilitated transportation and commerce throughout the country
• Immigrant entrepreneurs established small businesses, such as shops, restaurants, and services, that catered to their ethnic communities and contributed to the growth of urban economies
  • These businesses provided goods and services specific to the needs and preferences of immigrant communities, such as specialty food stores, clothing shops, and foreign-language newspapers
  • Immigrant-owned businesses also created employment opportunities within their communities and helped to revitalize neighborhoods

Cultural Contributions

• Immigrants brought diverse cultural traditions, including food, music, art, and festivals, which enriched American society and contributed to the development of a pluralistic culture
  • Italian immigrants introduced dishes like pizza, pasta, and gelato, which have become staples of American cuisine
  • Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe brought traditional foods like bagels, lox, and matzo ball soup, which are now widely enjoyed across the United States
  • Immigrant music and dance traditions, such as Irish step dancing, polka, and mariachi, have become part of the diverse tapestry of American cultural expression
• Many immigrants and their children took advantage of educational opportunities in the United States, with some becoming prominent figures in academia, science, literature, and the arts
  • Andrew Carnegie, a Scottish immigrant, became a successful industrialist and philanthropist, establishing libraries and educational institutions across the country
  • Albert Einstein, a German-Jewish immigrant, made groundbreaking contributions to the field of physics and became a symbol of intellectual achievement
  • Irving Berlin, a Russian-Jewish immigrant, composed some of the most iconic American songs, including "God Bless America" and "White Christmas"

Social and Political Contributions

• Immigrant labor activists and reformers played significant roles in the labor movement and the fight for better working conditions and wages
  • Samuel Gompers, a Jewish immigrant from England, founded the American Federation of Labor (AFL) and fought for the rights of workers, including the eight-hour workday and improved safety standards
  • Mary Harris "Mother" Jones, an Irish immigrant, was a prominent labor organizer and activist who advocated for the rights of coal miners and child laborers
• Immigrants and their descendants have made significant contributions to American politics and government
  • Felix Frankfurter, an Austrian-Jewish immigrant, served as a Justice on the U.S. Supreme Court and played a key role in shaping American constitutional law
  • Fiorello La Guardia, an Italian-American, served as the Mayor of New York City and implemented progressive reforms, including public housing and social welfare programs
• The experiences and struggles of immigrants have also shaped American social movements and political activism
  • The labor movement, civil rights movement, and women's suffrage movement all drew support and leadership from immigrant communities
  • Immigrant activists have fought for social justice, equality, and the expansion of rights for marginalized groups throughout American history