3.2 Old Kingdom society, government, and economy

Old Kingdom Egypt had a complex social structure with the pharaoh at the top. As a living god, the pharaoh ruled absolutely, maintaining order and overseeing everything from construction to religious rituals. Below him were nobles, priests, soldiers, craftsmen, and peasants.

The economy revolved around agriculture, with the Nile's annual floods providing fertile soil. Trade, both internal and external, was important, with the state controlling long-distance trade. Taxes, collected as crops and labor, funded large projects and supported the upper classes.

Social Structure and Government in Old Kingdom Egypt

Social hierarchy of Old Kingdom Egypt

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• Pharaoh
  • Living god embodiment of Horus and son of Ra
  • Supreme authority over all aspects of Egyptian society
• Nobility and high officials
  • Viziers, overseers, and scribes assisted in state administration
  • Held positions as governors of nomes (provinces) and supervisors of royal projects (pyramids)
• Priests
  • Maintained temples, performed rituals, and communicated with gods
  • Significant influence due to role in religious ceremonies and knowledge of writing (hieroglyphs)
• Soldiers
  • Defended Egypt's borders and maintained internal order
  • Comprised of conscripted peasants and professional soldiers
• Craftsmen and artisans
  • Skilled workers produced goods like pottery, textiles, and jewelry
  • Organized into guilds and workshops often associated with temples or royal court
• Peasants and farmers
  • Majority of population responsible for cultivating land and producing food (wheat, barley)
  • Worked on estates owned by pharaoh, nobles, or temples paying taxes through labor and portion of crops

Pharaoh's role in Old Kingdom government

• Absolute ruler of Egypt considered living god and intermediary between people and divine
• Responsibilities included:
  1. Maintaining order and balance (Ma'at) in universe
  2. Defending Egypt against foreign threats and expanding territory (Nubia)
  3. Overseeing construction of monuments, temples, and public works
  4. Appointing officials like viziers and governors to administer state
  5. Serving as chief priest performing essential religious rituals and ceremonies
• Pharaoh's power supported by:
  • Belief in divine kingship legitimizing pharaoh's rule
  • Centralized bureaucracy enforcing pharaoh's decrees and collecting taxes
  • Military protecting Egypt's borders and quelling internal rebellions

Economy and Society in Old Kingdom Egypt

Economy of Old Kingdom Egypt

• Agriculture
  • Nile River and annual floods provided fertile soil and reliable irrigation water
  • Main crops: wheat, barley, flax, and papyrus
  • Farmers used simple tools (wooden plows, sickles, hoes)
  • State organized large-scale irrigation projects and seed distribution
• Trade
  • Internal trade: exchange of goods between different Egyptian regions facilitated by Nile River
  • External trade: focused on luxury goods like gold, incense, cedar wood from Nubia, Punt, Levant
  • State controlled most long-distance trade with royal expeditions sent to acquire valuable resources
• Taxation
  • State collected taxes as portion of farmers' crops and labor for public works projects
  • Scribes kept detailed records of taxes owed and collected
  • Taxes stored in state granaries and redistributed to support pharaoh, nobility, temples
  • Taxation system financed large-scale projects (pyramid construction, military campaigns)

Power dynamics in Old Kingdom society

• Pharaoh central figure serving as link between divine and earthly realms
• Government composed of pharaoh-appointed officials implemented decrees and maintained order
• Relationship between pharaoh and people based on Ma'at (order, balance, justice)
  • Pharaoh upheld Ma'at ensuring prosperity and well-being of people
  • People obeyed pharaoh's authority and contributed to state through taxes and labor
• Pharaoh's legitimacy reinforced through:
  • Religious beliefs
  • Monumental building projects (pyramids, temples) demonstrating divine power and ensuring eternal existence
  • Distribution of resources (food, land) to maintain loyalty of nobility and support of people
• Centralized government and belief in divine kingship allowed pharaoh to:
  • Maintain control over population
  • Mobilize resources for large-scale projects
  • But also made Old Kingdom vulnerable to instability during times of weak or contested rule as pharaoh's authority was essential for order and prosperity