3.3 Pyramid construction and funerary practices

Ancient Egyptians built pyramids as tombs for pharaohs, evolving from simple mastabas to grand structures like the Great Pyramid of Giza. These monuments showcased the pharaohs' divine status and power, while also serving as gateways to the afterlife.

Pyramid construction was a massive undertaking, requiring skilled planning, a large workforce, and advanced engineering techniques. From quarrying limestone blocks to aligning structures with astronomical events, every aspect of pyramid building reflected the Egyptians' ingenuity and religious beliefs.

Pyramid Construction and Funerary Practices in Ancient Egypt

Evolution of pyramid construction techniques

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• Early Dynastic Period (c. 3100-2686 BCE)
  • Mastabas were rectangular, flat-roofed tombs made of mud-brick or stone serving as early burial structures
  • Step Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara (c. 2670 BCE) marked a significant advancement in pyramid construction
    • Designed by Imhotep, considered the first known architect in history, who introduced the use of stone blocks instead of mud-brick
    • Consists of six stepped layers, resembling a series of mastabas stacked on top of each other, creating a stepped appearance
• Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2181 BCE) saw the development of true pyramids with smooth sides and pointed tops
  • Bent Pyramid at Dahshur (c. 2600 BCE) was the first attempt at a smooth-sided pyramid but resulted in a bent appearance due to a change in the angle of inclination halfway up
  • Red Pyramid at Dahshur (c. 2580 BCE) was the first successful smooth-sided pyramid built at a consistent angle of 43 degrees
  • Great Pyramid of Giza (c. 2560 BCE), built for Pharaoh Khufu, is the largest and most famous pyramid constructed using precisely cut limestone blocks fitted tightly together

Major Old Kingdom pyramids

• Step Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara (c. 2670 BCE) associated with Pharaoh Djoser of the Third Dynasty
• Bent Pyramid at Dahshur (c. 2600 BCE) and Red Pyramid at Dahshur (c. 2580 BCE) built for Pharaoh Sneferu, founder of the Fourth Dynasty
• Great Pyramid of Giza (c. 2560 BCE) built for Pharaoh Khufu (Cheops), second ruler of the Fourth Dynasty
• Pyramid of Khafre at Giza (c. 2540 BCE) built for Pharaoh Khafre (Chephren), son of Khufu
• Pyramid of Menkaure at Giza (c. 2510 BCE) built for Pharaoh Menkaure (Mykerinos), son of Khafre

Religious significance of pyramids

• Pyramids served as tombs for pharaohs and their families, protecting and preserving the pharaoh's body and possessions for the afterlife
• Pharaohs were considered divine beings, and pyramids symbolized their connection to the gods and journey to the afterlife
• Pyramid complexes included temples for offering rituals and ceremonies
  • Mortuary temple used for the pharaoh's funeral and ongoing offerings
  • Valley temple used for the mummification process and ritual purification
• Pyramids were aligned with the cardinal directions (north, south, east, west) and astronomical events, believed to help guide the pharaoh's soul to the afterlife
• Pyramids demonstrated the pharaoh's power, wealth, and control over resources and labor, reinforcing their divine status

Logistics of pyramid construction

• Planning and organization involved architects and engineers designing the pyramid and overseeing construction, while surveyors ensured the pyramid was built on level ground and aligned with the cardinal directions
• Building materials primarily consisted of limestone blocks quarried near the pyramid site or transported from other locations via the Nile River, with granite used for structural elements and outer casing, transported from quarries in Aswan over 800 km away
• Labor force included:
  1. Skilled workers such as stonecutters, masons, and carpenters
  2. Unskilled workers who transported materials, set blocks in place, and performed manual labor
  3. Farmers and other laborers who worked on the pyramids during the annual Nile flood when agricultural work was not possible
• Tools and techniques used in construction:
  • Copper chisels, bronze saws, wooden rollers, and sleds to cut, transport, and position blocks
  • Ramps to transport blocks up the sides of the pyramid as it was being built
  • Levers, pulleys, and inclined planes to move and lift heavy blocks
• Time and resources required for pyramid construction were significant, often spanning the entire reign of a pharaoh and requiring substantial resources such as food, water, and housing for the workforce (the Great Pyramid of Giza is estimated to have taken around 20 years to build using an average workforce of 14,500 people)