3.3 Ratification of the 19th Amendment and its aftermath

The 19th Amendment's ratification in 1920 marked a pivotal moment in the women's suffrage movement. After decades of struggle, women finally gained the right to vote nationwide, nearly doubling the electorate and reshaping American politics.

Despite this victory, many women, especially women of color, still faced barriers to voting. The fight for true equality continued, as women sought greater representation in politics and challenged persistent gender inequalities in various aspects of society.

Path to Women's Suffrage

Early Suffrage Movement and Key Figures

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• The women's suffrage movement in the United States began in the mid-19th century
  • Seneca Falls Convention in 1848 marked a significant starting point
• Key figures in the early suffrage movement advocated for women's right to vote through speeches, writings, and organizing
  • Elizabeth Cady Stanton
  • Susan B. Anthony
  • Lucretia Mott

Suffrage Organizations and State-Level Efforts

• The National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) and the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA) were formed in 1869
  • Later merged to become the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) in 1890
• Various attempts to secure women's suffrage at the state level in the 19th century
  • Wyoming was the first to grant women the right to vote in 1869
  • Other states followed, such as Colorado (1893) and Utah (1896)

New Tactics and Growing Support

• In the early 20th century, suffragists employed new tactics to draw attention to their cause
  • Parades, pickets, and hunger strikes
  • Silent Sentinels, led by Alice Paul, picketed the White House during World War I
• Passage of the 19th Amendment was aided by increased role of women in the workforce and public sphere during World War I
  • Growing public support for women's suffrage
• The 19th Amendment, granting women the right to vote, was passed by Congress in 1919 and ratified by the required 36 states in August 1920

Impacts of Women's Suffrage

Increased Political Participation and Representation

• Ratification of the 19th Amendment nearly doubled the electorate
  • Significantly increased women's political participation and influence
• In the 1920 presidential election, millions of women exercised their newfound right to vote
  • Voter turnout among women was lower than that of men
• Increased representation of women in elected offices at the local, state, and federal levels, albeit gradually
  • Jeannette Rankin became the first woman elected to the U.S. Congress in 1917, even before the ratification of the 19th Amendment
  • Other notable early women in Congress include Alice Mary Robertson (1921) and Hattie Wyatt Caraway (1931)

Shaping Political Landscape and Progressive Legislation

• Women's vote became a significant factor in shaping political campaigns and policy decisions
  • Politicians began to address issues of concern to women, such as child labor, maternal health, and education
• Women's organizations emerged to educate and mobilize women voters
  • League of Women Voters promoted civic engagement and advocated for social and political reforms
• Enfranchisement of women contributed to the passage of progressive legislation in the 1920s
  • Sheppard-Towner Act (1921) provided federal funding for maternal and child health care
  • Other reforms included the Cable Act (1922), which granted independent citizenship to married women, and the establishment of the Women's Bureau in the Department of Labor (1920)

Challenging Gender Roles and Expanding Opportunities

• Women's suffrage challenged traditional gender roles and expectations
  • Paved the way for greater social, economic, and educational opportunities for women in the decades that followed
• Increased access to higher education and professional careers
  • Enrollment of women in colleges and universities grew significantly in the 1920s
• Women's participation in the workforce continued to expand
  • Particularly in clerical, sales, and service positions
• Cultural shifts in the 1920s, such as the "flapper" phenomenon, reflected changing attitudes towards women's roles and independence

Challenges for Women Voters

Barriers for Women of Color

• Despite the ratification of the 19th Amendment, many women, particularly women of color, continued to face barriers to voting
  • Poll taxes, literacy tests, and intimidation
• 19th Amendment did not address the disenfranchisement of African American women in the South
  • Often prevented from voting by discriminatory state laws and practices, such as the use of violence and threats by white supremacist groups
• Native American women faced unique challenges
  • Right to vote tied to citizenship status, which was not granted until the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924
  • Even then, many states continued to deny Native Americans the right to vote
• Immigrant women encountered obstacles to voting
  • Language barriers and naturalization requirements limited their political participation

Social and Cultural Norms

• Social and cultural norms continued to discourage women from fully engaging in politics
  • Women faced criticism for being too "masculine" or neglecting their domestic duties if they were politically active
• Lack of women in leadership positions within political parties
  • Absence of a strong, national women's political organization in the immediate post-suffrage era
  • Limited women's ability to influence party platforms and nominations

Diverse Political Interests

• Women voters were not a monolithic group
  • Often had diverse political interests and affiliations
• Challenging to create a unified "women's vote" or "women's agenda"
  • Women's organizations often focused on specific issues rather than a broad, cohesive platform
• Divergent views among women on key issues
  • Such as the role of government in social welfare, labor rights, and foreign policy

Gender Equality in the Post-Suffrage Era

Ongoing Fight for Equal Rights

• Despite gains made by the women's suffrage movement, gender inequality persisted in various aspects of American society
  • Employment, education, and politics
• Women continued to fight for equal pay, better working conditions, and access to traditionally male-dominated professions
  • Formation of labor unions and professional organizations for women, such as the National Federation of Business and Professional Women's Clubs (1919)
• "Second wave" of the women's movement in the 1960s and 1970s addressed a wide range of issues
  • Reproductive rights, sexual harassment, and discrimination in education and employment
  • Landmark legislation such as Title VII of the Civil Rights Act (1964) and Title IX of the Education Amendments (1972)

Slow Progress in Political Representation

• Women's political representation at the federal level remained low for decades after suffrage
  • Number of women in Congress not exceeding 5% until the 1970s
  • As of 2021, women make up about 27% of Congress, still far from proportional representation
• Fight for the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) began in the 1920s and gained momentum in the 1970s
  • Would guarantee equal rights for women under the Constitution
  • Fell short of ratification by the required number of states
• Gradual increase in the number of women holding statewide executive offices, such as governor and attorney general
  • Ella T. Grasso became the first woman elected governor in her own right (Connecticut, 1974)
  • Janet Reno became the first woman U.S. Attorney General (1993)

Intersectionality and Diverse Experiences

• Intersectionality has become an important framework for understanding the compounded effects of gender, race, class, and other forms of discrimination on women's experiences and political representation
  • Term coined by Kimberlé Crenshaw in 1989
• Continued disparities in political participation and representation among women of different racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic backgrounds
  • Underrepresentation of women of color in elected offices
  • Barriers to political engagement for low-income and working-class women
• Efforts to address the diverse needs and concerns of women through intersectional advocacy and coalition-building
  • Formation of organizations such as the National Black Feminist Organization (1973) and the National Organization for Women (1966)

Milestones and Ongoing Struggles

• Election of Kamala Harris as the first woman, African American, and Asian American Vice President in 2020
  • Significant milestone in women's political representation
• Persistent gender gaps in political ambition, campaign funding, and media coverage
  • Women candidates often face additional scrutiny and stereotypes based on their gender
• Ongoing efforts to increase women's political representation and leadership at all levels of government
  • Recruitment and training programs for women candidates, such as Emerge America and She Should Run
• Continued advocacy for policies that promote gender equality and address the unique challenges faced by women
  • Such as paid family leave, affordable child care, and reproductive rights