3.1 Technological Innovations and Industrial Growth
5 min read•july 31, 2024
The late 19th century saw America transform through rapid technological advancements. From Edison's lightbulb to Ford's assembly line, innovations revolutionized industry, boosting productivity and living standards. These changes laid the foundation for modern American society.
This era of progress also brought challenges. Big businesses and monopolies emerged, concentrating wealth and power. The government grappled with promoting growth while regulating excesses. Meanwhile, workers faced harsh conditions, sparking the rise of labor unions and calls for reform.
Technology's Impact on American Society
Advancements in Electricity and Manufacturing
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The second , from the late 19th to early 20th century, saw a rapid increase in technological innovations that transformed American industry and society
's light bulb and power systems revolutionized factories, businesses, and homes leading to increased productivity and improved living standards
The development of the and open-hearth furnaces greatly increased steel production making it cheaper and more widely available for construction and manufacturing
The rise of techniques, exemplified by 's assembly line, increased efficiency, lowered costs, and made consumer goods more affordable and accessible to a growing middle class
Innovations in Communication, Transportation, and Agriculture
The and telephone facilitated long-distance business transactions and connected people across the country
The expansion of the railroad network, including the completion of the First Transcontinental Railroad in 1869, dramatically reduced transportation costs and time enabling the growth of national markets and the rise of large corporations
Advancements in agriculture, such as the steel plow, , and , increased farm productivity and output leading to the commercialization of agriculture and the decline of small family farms
Rise of Big Business
Emergence of Monopolies and Trusts
The late 19th century saw the emergence of large, vertically and horizontally integrated corporations that dominated their respective industries, often through the formation of monopolies and trusts
Robber barons, such as , , and , amassed enormous wealth and power by ruthlessly eliminating competition and controlling entire industries
The rise of trusts, such as the Sugar Trust and the Beef Trust, allowed companies to fix prices, limit production, and eliminate competition leading to higher consumer prices and reduced market efficiency
Dominance of Key Industries
Andrew Carnegie's Carnegie Steel Company became the largest steel manufacturer in the world through vertical integration controlling every stage of the production process from raw materials to finished products
John D. Rockefeller's Standard Oil Company monopolized the oil industry through horizontal integration acquiring rival companies and engaging in predatory pricing to drive out competition
The concentration of economic power in the hands of a few large corporations and wealthy individuals led to growing concerns about income inequality, working conditions, and the erosion of democratic values
Government's Role in Industrialization
Promoting Industrial Growth
The federal government played a significant role in promoting industrial growth through policies such as subsidies, land grants, and protective tariffs, while also attempting to regulate business practices to address public concerns
The of 1862 and 1890 provided federal land to states for the establishment of colleges focused on agriculture and mechanical arts supporting the development of a skilled industrial workforce
High protective tariffs, such as the of 1890 and the of 1897, shielded American industries from foreign competition encouraging domestic production and investment
Regulating Business Practices
The government's laissez-faire approach to regulation, influenced by the concept of Social Darwinism, initially allowed businesses to operate with minimal interference leading to the growth of monopolies and trusts
The of 1887 established the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to regulate railroads prohibiting price discrimination and requiring published shipping rates, but its effectiveness was limited by judicial interpretations
The of 1890 outlawed trusts and monopolies that restrained trade, but its vague language and narrow judicial interpretations made it largely ineffective in breaking up large corporations
Progressive Era reforms, such as the Pure Food and Drug Act and the Meat Inspection Act of 1906, aimed to protect consumers and regulate business practices marking a shift towards greater government intervention in the economy
Consequences of Industrialization
Impact on the Working Class
The rise of factory work and led to the growth of a new industrial working class, composed largely of immigrants and rural migrants, who faced long hours, low wages, and hazardous working conditions
Child labor was widespread, with children as young as five working in factories, mines, and mills, often in dangerous and exploitative conditions
Labor unions, such as the and the , emerged to advocate for better wages, shorter hours, and improved working conditions, but often faced violent opposition from employers and government authorities
Social and Economic Inequalities
The concentration of wealth and power in the hands of a few industrial magnates led to growing income inequality and social tensions, as exemplified by the and the rise of Populist and Progressive movements
Rapid industrialization and urbanization led to the growth of urban slums characterized by overcrowding, poor sanitation, and high rates of disease and crime
The mechanization of agriculture and the rise of commercial farming led to the decline of small family farms and the displacement of rural populations contributing to the growth of cities and the rise of a landless agricultural proletariat
African Americans, particularly in the South, faced systemic discrimination, segregation, and violence, as exemplified by the rise of and the widespread practice of lynching
Native American communities faced forced assimilation, land dispossession, and cultural destruction as a result of government policies such as the of 1887 and the establishment of Indian boarding schools
The rise of mass and the growth of a middle class, fueled by rising wages and the availability of affordable consumer goods, transformed American culture and values emphasizing individualism, materialism, and social mobility