3.2 Theories of reference: descriptive and causal-historical

Theories of reference explore how words connect to things in the world. Descriptive theories link words to descriptions, while causal-historical theories trace words back to original naming events. Each approach has strengths and weaknesses in explaining how language refers to reality.

These theories impact how we understand meaning and truth. Descriptive theories tie meaning to descriptions, allowing for change. Causal-historical theories anchor meaning in initial naming, providing stability. Real-world examples highlight the practical implications of these different approaches to reference.

Theories of Reference

Descriptive vs causal-historical theories

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• Descriptive theories propose reference is determined by descriptive content associated with a term
  • Referent is object satisfying descriptive content (the tallest mountain in the world refers to Mount Everest)
  • Meaning based on descriptive content, not actual object
• Causal-historical theories propose reference is determined by initial "baptism" or naming event
  • Referent is object originally named or referred to (the person named "Aristotle" at birth)
  • Reference maintained through causal chain of communication from initial naming to present use
• Contrasting features highlight descriptive theories rely on content of descriptions while causal-historical theories rely on initial naming event and subsequent causal chain
  • Descriptive theories allow reference to change if descriptive content changes (the tallest mountain referring to K2 if it grew taller than Everest)
  • Causal-historical theories maintain reference regardless of changes in descriptive content (Aristotle still referring to the original person even if descriptions of him were found to be inaccurate)

Strengths and weaknesses of reference theories

• Strengths of descriptive theories account for intuition that meaning is related to content of descriptions
  • Explain how reference can change over time as descriptions change (the fastest man alive referring to different people at different times)
• Weaknesses of descriptive theories struggle to account for cases where descriptive content is incomplete or inaccurate but reference still succeeds
  • Face challenges with problem of ignorance and error (someone referring to Einstein without knowing any accurate descriptions of him)
• Strengths of causal-historical theories account for successful reference even when descriptive content is incomplete or inaccurate
  • Explain stability of reference over time (the name "Plato" referring to the same person across centuries)
• Weaknesses of causal-historical theories struggle to account for intuition that meaning is related to descriptive content
  • Face challenges in explaining reference change and introduction of new terms (difficulty explaining how a new name can be introduced and refer to something)

Application to real-world examples

• Analyzing examples using descriptive theories illustrates how referent is determined by descriptive content
  • "The first person to walk on the moon" refers to Neil Armstrong because he satisfies that description
    • If it were discovered Buzz Aldrin secretly took the first step, referent would change to him
• Analyzing examples using causal-historical theories illustrates how referent is determined by initial naming event
  • "Christopher Columbus" refers to the person originally given that name, even if descriptions of his life were found to be inaccurate
    • If it were discovered he had a secret twin who actually did the things attributed to Columbus, the name would still refer to the original person named Columbus at birth

Implications for meaning and truth

• Descriptive theories imply meaning is determined by content of descriptions
  • Truth is determined by whether referent satisfies descriptive content
    • "The tallest mountain is Mount Everest" is true if and only if Mount Everest is the tallest mountain
  • Meaning and truth can change as descriptive content changes
• Causal-historical theories imply meaning is determined by initial naming event and subsequent causal chain
  • Truth is determined by properties of actual referent, regardless of descriptive content
    • "Aristotle was a philosopher" is true if and only if the original person named Aristotle was a philosopher, even if commonly attributed descriptions of Aristotle are false
  • Meaning and truth are more stable, not dependent on changes in descriptive content