4.1 Archaeological Survey Techniques

Archaeological surveys are crucial for discovering and documenting ancient sites. They involve various techniques like pedestrian surveys, aerial surveys, and geophysical methods. Each approach has unique advantages and limitations, helping archaeologists piece together the past.

Remote sensing and site identification processes are key components of archaeological surveys. These methods allow researchers to gather data from a distance, identify potential sites, and systematically record findings. Understanding these techniques is essential for effective archaeological fieldwork.

Archaeological Survey Techniques

Types of archaeological surveys

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• Pedestrian surveys involve archaeologists systematically walking over a study area to identify and record archaeological sites and artifacts on the surface
  • Typically used for small to medium-sized areas (up to several square kilometers)
  • Allows for detailed observation and recording of surface features and artifacts, such as stone tools, pottery sherds, or architectural remains
• Aerial surveys are conducted using aircraft, drones, or satellites to capture images of the landscape from above
  • Useful for efficiently covering large areas (hundreds or thousands of square kilometers) and identifying landscape features, such as earthworks, roads, or buried structures
  • Provide a broad overview of the study area and its archaeological potential, but may miss smaller features or artifacts not visible from the air
• Geophysical surveys use various technologies to detect and map subsurface features without the need for excavation
  • Common methods include:
    • Magnetometry detects magnetic anomalies caused by buried features, such as hearths, kilns, or iron objects
    • Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) uses high-frequency radar pulses to create images of subsurface features, such as walls, floors, or burial chambers
    • Electrical resistivity measures the electrical resistance of the soil to identify buried features, such as stone foundations, ditches, or middens, based on differences in soil moisture and composition

Principles of remote sensing

• Remote sensing involves collecting data about an object or area from a distance, without physical contact, using various parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, such as visible light, infrared, or radar
• Data can be collected from a variety of platforms, including satellites (Landsat, Sentinel), aircraft (planes, helicopters), or drones (quadcopters, fixed-wing UAVs)
• Remote sensing data can provide information about the physical and chemical properties of the Earth's surface, such as vegetation health, soil moisture, or thermal signatures
• Archaeological applications of remote sensing include:
  • Identifying and mapping archaeological sites and features based on surface indicators, such as crop marks, soil marks, or shadow marks
  • Monitoring site conditions and changes over time, such as erosion, looting, or urban development
  • Providing context for archaeological sites within the broader landscape, such as ancient land use patterns, trade routes, or settlement systems
  • Guiding targeted ground-based surveys or excavations to areas of high archaeological potential or interest

Site identification process

1. Conduct background research to gather information about the study area, including previous archaeological investigations, historical records, and environmental data
2. Develop a predictive model to identify areas of high archaeological potential based on factors such as topography, water sources, soil types, and known site patterns
3. Conduct a systematic survey of the study area using appropriate techniques (pedestrian, aerial, geophysical) to identify potential archaeological sites based on surface indicators, such as artifacts, features, or landscape anomalies
4. Record the location, extent, and characteristics of identified sites using GPS, site maps, photographs, and standardized site recording forms or databases
5. Assign unique site numbers or codes to each identified site for future reference and management
6. Collect and record diagnostic artifacts or samples from each site for further analysis and dating
7. Assess the significance and research potential of each site based on factors such as integrity, rarity, and ability to address important research questions
8. Recommend further investigation or protection measures for significant sites, if necessary, such as detailed mapping, excavation, or nomination to the National Register of Historic Places
9. Submit completed site records to the appropriate state or national databases, such as the State Historic Preservation Office or the National Archaeological Database, for long-term curation and access by researchers and land managers

Survey techniques: advantages vs limitations

• Pedestrian surveys:
  • Advantages:
    • Allow for detailed observation and recording of surface features and artifacts, providing high-resolution data on site characteristics and artifact distributions
    • Relatively low cost and minimal equipment requirements, making them accessible to a wide range of projects and budgets
  • Limitations:
    • Time-consuming for large areas, requiring significant labor and logistical support
    • May miss subsurface features or deeply buried sites that have no surface expression
    • Effectiveness can be limited by vegetation cover (dense forests), surface visibility (plowed fields), or post-depositional processes (erosion, development)
• Aerial surveys:
  • Advantages:
    • Cover large areas efficiently, reducing survey time and costs compared to ground-based methods
    • Provide a broad overview of the landscape and its features, allowing for the identification of large-scale patterns and relationships
    • Can identify sites or features not visible from the ground, such as subtle topographic changes or vegetation anomalies
  • Limitations:
    • May miss smaller features or artifacts that are not visible from the air, particularly in areas with dense vegetation or complex topography
    • Require specialized equipment (aircraft, cameras) and expertise (pilots, photographers), which can be costly and logistically challenging
    • Effectiveness can be limited by weather conditions (clouds, haze), vegetation cover (leaf-on vs. leaf-off), or the timing of data acquisition (seasonal changes)
• Geophysical surveys:
  • Advantages:
    • Provide a non-invasive way to detect and map subsurface features without the need for excavation, preserving the archaeological record for future research
    • Generate detailed information about the spatial distribution and characteristics of buried features, such as the depth, size, and shape of anomalies
    • Can guide targeted excavations or inform site protection strategies, such as avoidance or mitigation measures
  • Limitations:
    • Require specialized equipment (magnetometers, GPR, resistivity meters) and expertise (geophysicists, data processors), which can be costly and not widely available
    • Data processing and interpretation can be complex and time-consuming, requiring significant computing power and skilled analysts
    • Effectiveness can be limited by soil conditions (clay, bedrock), moisture content (wet vs. dry), or the depth of buried features (signal attenuation with depth)