4.2 Classical period

The Classical period of Ancient Greece, from 500 to 323 BCE, saw Athens and Sparta rise as dominant city-states. This era brought significant cultural and political developments, including the world's first democracy in Athens and Sparta's unique militaristic society.

The Persian Wars marked a turning point, with Greek victories at Marathon and Salamis. Athens then formed the Delian League, which evolved into an empire. The period ended with the Peloponnesian War and the rise of Macedon under Philip II and Alexander the Great.

Classical period overview

• The Classical period of Ancient Greece, spanning from around 500 to 323 BCE, was a time of significant cultural, political, and military developments
• This era witnessed the rise of Athens and Sparta as dominant city-states, the Persian Wars, the flourishing of art, architecture, literature, and philosophy
• The period ended with the rise of Macedon under Philip II and Alexander the Great, setting the stage for the Hellenistic period

Athens and Sparta

Athens' democracy and culture

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• Athens developed the world's first known democracy, where male citizens participated directly in political decision-making
• The city fostered a vibrant cultural scene, with innovations in art, architecture, literature, and philosophy
• Athenian cultural achievements include the works of playwrights like Sophocles and Aristophanes, the Parthenon, and the philosophical schools of Socrates and Plato

Sparta's militaristic society

• Sparta was known for its unique social system and powerful military, which dominated the Peloponnese region
• Spartan society was highly stratified, with a ruling class of Spartiates, a class of free non-citizens called Perioikoi, and a large population of state-owned slaves known as Helots
• The Spartan education system, known as the agoge, focused on military training and discipline from a young age, producing skilled and loyal warriors

Persian Wars

Ionian Revolt

• The Ionian Revolt (499-493 BCE) was an uprising of Greek city-states in Ionia (modern-day western Turkey) against Persian rule
• Athens and Eretria supported the revolt, which ultimately failed but led to increased tensions between the Greeks and Persians

Battle of Marathon

• In 490 BCE, the Persian Empire launched an invasion of Greece, landing at Marathon near Athens
• The outnumbered Athenians, led by Miltiades, defeated the Persians in a surprise attack, marking a significant victory for the Greeks

Battle of Thermopylae

• In 480 BCE, the Persians under Xerxes I launched a second invasion of Greece
• At the Battle of Thermopylae, a small force of Spartans and other Greeks held off the massive Persian army for three days, allowing the Greek city-states time to prepare their defenses

Battle of Salamis

• Following Thermopylae, the Persians advanced into Attica and burned Athens
• However, the Greek fleet, led by the Athenian Themistocles, decisively defeated the Persian navy at the Battle of Salamis, turning the tide of the war

Delian League

• After the Persian Wars, Athens formed the Delian League, an alliance of Greek city-states aimed at protecting Greece from further Persian aggression
• Over time, Athens began to dominate the League, transforming it into an Athenian-led empire

Athenian Empire

Pericles' leadership

• Pericles, a prominent Athenian statesman, led Athens during its Golden Age in the mid-5th century BCE
• He promoted democracy, the arts, and ambitious building projects, including the Parthenon

Parthenon construction

• The Parthenon, a monumental temple dedicated to Athena, was built on the Athenian Acropolis during Pericles' leadership
• The temple, designed by Ictinus and Callicrates, is considered a masterpiece of Classical Greek architecture

Athenian tribute system

• As the leader of the Delian League, Athens required member states to pay tribute, which was used to fund Athenian projects and maintain its naval supremacy
• This tribute system, along with Athens' increasingly imperialistic policies, led to resentment among its allies and eventually contributed to the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War

Peloponnesian War

Athens vs Sparta

• The Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE) was a prolonged conflict between Athens and Sparta, involving most of the Greek world
• The war was driven by Sparta's fear of Athens' growing power and resentment of its empire

Sicilian Expedition

• In 415 BCE, Athens launched a disastrous expedition to Sicily, attempting to conquer the island and expand its influence
• The expedition ended in a crushing defeat for Athens, weakening its military and financial resources

Lysander and Spartan victory

• The Spartan general Lysander played a crucial role in the final years of the Peloponnesian War
• He secured Persian financial support for Sparta and decisively defeated the Athenian fleet at Aegospotami in 405 BCE, leading to Athens' surrender and the end of the war

Greek art and architecture

Sculpture and pottery

• Classical Greek sculpture emphasized idealized human forms, balance, and proportion, as seen in works like the Doryphoros by Polykleitos
• Greek pottery, such as red-figure and black-figure styles, depicted mythological scenes, daily life, and geometric patterns

Doric vs Ionic styles

• The Doric and Ionic orders were two of the main architectural styles in Classical Greece
• The Doric order, used in the Parthenon, was characterized by simple, sturdy columns with no base and plain capitals
• The Ionic order, seen in the Erechtheion, featured slender, fluted columns with ornate capitals and bases

Greek literature and philosophy

Tragedy and comedy

• Greek drama flourished during the Classical period, with the development of tragedy and comedy
• Playwrights like Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides wrote tragedies that explored themes of fate, justice, and the human condition
• Aristophanes was a prominent writer of comedies, which often satirized contemporary politics and society

Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle

• The Classical period saw the rise of influential philosophers who shaped Western thought
• Socrates, known for his Socratic method of questioning, encouraged critical thinking and self-examination
• Plato, Socrates' student, founded the Academy in Athens and wrote extensively on topics such as ethics, politics, and metaphysics
• Aristotle, a student of Plato, made significant contributions to logic, natural science, and ethics, and tutored Alexander the Great

Rhetoric and oratory

• The art of public speaking and persuasion, known as rhetoric, was highly valued in Classical Greece
• Skilled orators, such as Demosthenes and Lysias, played important roles in political and legal spheres
• The study of rhetoric was formalized by philosophers like Aristotle, who wrote treatises on the subject

Macedonian rise

Philip II's conquests

• Philip II of Macedon (r. 359-336 BCE) transformed Macedonia into a powerful kingdom through military reforms and strategic conquests
• He subjugated the Greek city-states, culminating in his victory at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BCE

Alexander the Great

• Alexander the Great (r. 336-323 BCE), Philip II's son, became king of Macedonia at age 20
• He embarked on a series of conquests, creating a vast empire that stretched from Greece to India
• Alexander's campaigns spread Greek culture throughout the known world, initiating the Hellenistic period

Hellenistic period beginnings

• The Hellenistic period (323-31 BCE) began with Alexander's death and the division of his empire among his generals, known as the Diadochi
• This era was characterized by the spread of Greek language, culture, and art across the Mediterranean and Near East
• The Hellenistic period saw the rise of new cultural centers, such as Alexandria in Egypt, and advancements in science, mathematics, and philosophy