4.5 Elijah Muhammad and the Nation of Islam

Elijah Muhammad led the Nation of Islam, blending Islam with Black nationalism. He taught that Allah chose Black people as his chosen race and that whites were "devils" created by an evil scientist.

The NOI promoted Black pride and self-reliance, attracting followers like Malcolm X. Its separatist ideology clashed with the civil rights movement and drew FBI surveillance. Despite controversies, the NOI significantly impacted African American religion and culture.

Origins of the Nation of Islam

• The Nation of Islam (NOI) emerged in the early 20th century as a new religious movement that blended elements of Islam with Black nationalism and self-empowerment
• Founded in 1930 in Detroit, Michigan by Wallace Fard Muhammad, who claimed to be a messenger sent by Allah to deliver a message of liberation to African Americans
• Elijah Muhammad, born Elijah Poole, became Fard Muhammad's top student and eventual successor as the leader of the NOI

Wallace Fard Muhammad's role

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• Mysterious figure who appeared in Detroit's Black community in 1930, preaching a message of Black empowerment and self-determination
• Taught that Islam was the original religion of Black people and that Christianity was a tool of white oppression
• Disappeared in 1934, leaving Elijah Muhammad to take over leadership of the fledgling movement

Elijah Muhammad's early life

• Born in 1897 in Sandersville, Georgia, one of 13 children in a family of sharecroppers
• Moved to Detroit in 1923 as part of the Great Migration of African Americans from the South to Northern cities
• Worked in factories and became disillusioned with the racism and economic exploitation faced by Black workers

Conversion to Islam

• Met Wallace Fard Muhammad in 1931 and became his devoted student
• Changed his name from Elijah Poole to Elijah Muhammad, signifying his embrace of Islam and rejection of his "slave name"
• Believed that Fard Muhammad was the long-awaited Mahdi, or Islamic messiah, who had come to deliver Black people from oppression

Elijah Muhammad's leadership

• After Fard Muhammad's disappearance in 1934, Elijah Muhammad assumed leadership of the NOI and began to build the organization into a national movement
• Established a centralized structure with a strict hierarchy and a network of temples across the country
• Emphasized discipline, self-sufficiency, and moral uprightness as key values for NOI members

Years as leader

• Led the NOI from 1934 until his death in 1975, a period of over 40 years
• Guided the organization through significant growth and challenges, including government surveillance, internal disputes, and shifting social and political contexts

Organizational structure

• Created a top-down leadership model with himself as the Supreme Minister and a network of ministers and captains overseeing local temples
• Required members to adhere to a strict code of conduct, including dietary restrictions, modest dress, and regular attendance at temple meetings
• Established the Fruit of Islam, an elite group of male members who served as the organization's security force and disciplinary arm

Membership growth

• Under Muhammad's leadership, NOI membership grew from a few hundred in the 1930s to an estimated 75,000 by the early 1960s
• Attracted followers through a message of Black pride, self-reliance, and liberation from white oppression
• Gained national attention through the high-profile conversion of Malcolm X, who became the organization's most charismatic spokesman in the late 1950s and early 1960s

Theology and beliefs

• The NOI's theology blended elements of traditional Islam with unique interpretations and doctrines that emphasized Black empowerment and separatism
• Taught that Allah was the one true God and that Islam was the original religion of Black people, which had been stolen and corrupted by white oppressors
• Rejected integration with white society and advocated for the establishment of a separate Black nation or territory

Allah and racial separatism

• Believed that Allah had chosen the Black race to be his chosen people and that whites were "devils" created by an evil scientist named Yakub
• Taught that Blacks and whites should live separately and that integration was a threat to Black identity and self-determination
• Envisioned the eventual establishment of a Black homeland or independent nation where African Americans could live free from white domination

Yakub and the white race

• According to NOI doctrine, the white race was created by an evil scientist named Yakub through a process of selective breeding on the island of Patmos
• Yakub was said to have used a recessive gene to create a race of "white devils" who would rule the world for 6,000 years before being destroyed by Allah
• This belief served to explain the historical oppression of Black people and to justify the NOI's stance of racial separatism and opposition to integration

Eschatology and the Mother Plane

• The NOI taught that the end of the world was imminent and that Allah would soon destroy the white race and establish a new world order ruled by Black people
• Central to this eschatological vision was the concept of the Mother Plane, a giant UFO that would transport the righteous to safety while raining destruction on the wicked
• Elijah Muhammad claimed to have seen the Mother Plane in a vision and described it as a half-mile by half-mile wheel-shaped vessel containing bombs and other weapons

Religious practices

• The NOI developed a distinct set of religious practices and rituals that reflected its unique theology and emphasis on discipline and self-improvement
• Members were required to attend regular temple meetings, adhere to a strict moral code, and follow dietary laws that prohibited pork, alcohol, and other substances deemed unclean
• The organization also promoted a strong work ethic and encouraged members to start their own businesses and become financially independent

Temple meetings and rituals

• NOI temples held regular meetings on Sundays and Wednesdays, which included prayers, sermons, and study sessions
• Members were required to dress modestly and sit separately by gender, with men wearing dark suits and bow ties and women wearing long white dresses and headscarves
• Rituals included the recitation of Arabic prayers, the singing of hymns, and the performance of military-style drills by the Fruit of Islam

Dietary laws

• The NOI prohibited the consumption of pork, alcohol, tobacco, and other substances deemed harmful or unclean
• Members were encouraged to eat a healthy diet based on vegetables, fruits, and whole grains, with an emphasis on foods that were believed to promote physical and spiritual well-being
• Some temples operated their own restaurants and grocery stores that sold NOI-approved foods and products

Moral codes of conduct

• The NOI demanded strict moral discipline from its members, prohibiting extramarital sex, drug use, gambling, and other behaviors seen as immoral or degrading
• Men were expected to be responsible providers for their families, while women were encouraged to prioritize motherhood and homemaking
• Members were required to respect authority, maintain a neat and clean appearance, and strive for self-improvement through education and hard work

Political and social activism

• Although primarily a religious movement, the NOI also engaged in political and social activism, particularly during the civil rights era of the 1950s and 1960s
• The organization's message of Black pride and self-determination resonated with many African Americans who were frustrated with the slow pace of progress and the limitations of the mainstream civil rights movement
• However, the NOI's separatist ideology and militant rhetoric also brought it into conflict with other civil rights leaders and with the US government

Civil rights era involvement

• The NOI initially rejected the integrationist goals of the civil rights movement, seeing them as a threat to Black identity and self-determination
• However, as the movement gained momentum in the late 1950s and early 1960s, the NOI began to engage more directly with civil rights issues, particularly through the activism of Malcolm X
• In 1963, Malcolm X represented the NOI at the March on Washington, where he criticized the mainstream civil rights leadership as too moderate and accommodating to white interests

Malcolm X and the NOI

• Malcolm X, born Malcolm Little, joined the NOI in 1952 and quickly rose through the ranks to become one of the organization's most prominent and charismatic leaders
• As the minister of Temple No. 7 in Harlem, New York, Malcolm X attracted thousands of new members to the NOI and became a national spokesman for the movement
• However, tensions between Malcolm X and Elijah Muhammad led to a split in 1964, with Malcolm leaving the NOI to form his own organization, the Organization of Afro-American Unity

Conflicts with the US government

• The NOI's separatist ideology and militant rhetoric brought it into conflict with the US government, which viewed the organization as a threat to national security
• In the 1950s and 1960s, the FBI launched a widespread surveillance and harassment campaign against the NOI, infiltrating the organization with informants and attempting to disrupt its activities
• Elijah Muhammad and other NOI leaders were repeatedly arrested and prosecuted on charges ranging from draft evasion to sedition, although most of these cases were eventually dismissed or overturned

Controversies and criticisms

• Throughout its history, the NOI has been a controversial and polarizing movement, attracting both fervent support and harsh criticism from various quarters
• The organization has been accused of promoting racism and anti-Semitism, as well as of exploiting its members for financial gain
• It has also faced tensions with the broader Islamic world, which has often rejected the NOI's unorthodox doctrines and practices as heretical or un-Islamic

Accusations of racism

• The NOI's teachings about the inherent superiority of the Black race and the inherent evil of the white race have been widely criticized as racist and divisive
• Some of the organization's leaders, including Elijah Muhammad and Louis Farrakhan, have been accused of making anti-Semitic statements and promoting conspiracy theories about Jewish control of the media and government
• Critics argue that the NOI's ideology of racial separatism and Black supremacy is no less harmful or misguided than white supremacist ideologies

Tensions with orthodox Islam

• The NOI's theology and practices differ significantly from those of mainstream Sunni and Shia Islam, leading many orthodox Muslims to reject the organization as heretical or even as a non-Islamic cult
• Particular points of contention include the NOI's deification of Fard Muhammad, its belief in the Mother Plane and other eschatological doctrines, and its use of non-traditional prayers and rituals
• Some Muslim leaders have accused the NOI of misrepresenting and exploiting Islamic teachings for its own political and financial gain

FBI surveillance and harassment

• As mentioned earlier, the NOI was a major target of FBI surveillance and harassment during the 1950s and 1960s, as part of the agency's broader campaign against Black nationalist and leftist groups
• The FBI's COINTELPRO (Counter Intelligence Program) sought to infiltrate and disrupt the NOI through a variety of tactics, including planting informants, spreading disinformation, and fomenting internal divisions
• Some NOI members and supporters have accused the FBI of being complicit in the assassination of Malcolm X, who was killed by NOI members in 1965 after leaving the organization and becoming a critic of Elijah Muhammad

Legacy and impact

• Despite its controversies and limitations, the NOI has had a significant and lasting impact on African American religion, politics, and culture
• The organization's message of Black pride, self-reliance, and resistance to white supremacy inspired a generation of activists and helped to lay the groundwork for the Black Power movement of the late 1960s and 1970s
• The NOI also played a key role in the spread of Islam among African Americans, with many former members going on to embrace orthodox Sunni Islam and become leaders in the broader American Muslim community

Influence on Black nationalism

• The NOI's ideology of Black separatism and self-determination had a major influence on the development of Black nationalist thought in the United States
• Groups such as the Black Panther Party and the US Organization drew on the NOI's critique of white supremacy and its emphasis on Black self-reliance and community control
• The NOI's call for a separate Black nation or territory also inspired other separatist movements, such as the Republic of New Afrika and the Nuwaubian Nation

Conversion of prominent figures

• The NOI attracted a number of high-profile converts over the years, including Malcolm X, Muhammad Ali, and Louis Farrakhan
• These figures helped to raise the organization's national profile and to spread its message to a wider audience
• Muhammad Ali's conversion in 1964, in particular, brought international attention to the NOI and helped to challenge stereotypes about Islam and Black masculinity

Offshoots and splinter groups

• The NOI has spawned a number of offshoots and splinter groups over the years, each with its own distinct ideology and leadership
• The most significant of these is the Nation of Islam under Louis Farrakhan, which split from the main body of the NOI in 1977 and has continued to promote a separatist and nationalist message
• Other offshoots include the Five Percent Nation, the United Nation of Islam, and the Nation of Gods and Earths, all of which have developed their own unique theologies and practices while maintaining some links to the original NOI teachings

Succession and reformation

• After Elijah Muhammad's death in 1975, the NOI underwent a period of upheaval and transformation as different factions vied for control of the organization
• Muhammad's son, Wallace D. Muhammad (later known as Warith Deen Mohammed), emerged as the new leader and began to steer the NOI towards a more orthodox Sunni Islamic path
• This reformation led to a split in the organization, with Louis Farrakhan and other traditionalists breaking away to form their own rival NOI

Wallace Muhammad's leadership

• As the new Supreme Minister of the NOI, Wallace Muhammad initiated a series of sweeping reforms aimed at bringing the organization into line with mainstream Sunni Islam
• He rejected the traditional NOI teachings about Yakub and the Mother Plane, and instead emphasized the study of the Quran and the Five Pillars of Islam
• He also changed the name of the organization to the World Community of al-Islam in the West, and later to the American Society of Muslims, to reflect its new religious orientation

Transition to Sunni Islam

• Under Wallace Muhammad's leadership, many former NOI members converted to orthodox Sunni Islam and began to participate in the broader American Muslim community
• The organization established ties with Muslim countries and organizations around the world, and sent students to study at Islamic universities in the Middle East and Africa
• Wallace Muhammad also encouraged members to participate in mainstream American politics and to work for social justice and civil rights within the framework of the existing system

Louis Farrakhan and NOI revival

• Not all NOI members were happy with Wallace Muhammad's reforms, however, and a significant faction led by Louis Farrakhan broke away to form a new Nation of Islam in 1977
• Farrakhan, who had been a prominent lieutenant of Elijah Muhammad, rejected the turn towards Sunni orthodoxy and sought to revive the original NOI teachings and practices
• Under Farrakhan's leadership, the new NOI has continued to promote Black separatism and self-determination, as well as controversial doctrines such as the Mother Plane and the inherent evil of the white race
• The Farrakhan-led NOI has also been involved in a number of high-profile controversies, including accusations of anti-Semitism and homophobia, and has faced ongoing tensions with the mainstream American Muslim community