4.2 Intimate partner violence

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a serious issue affecting millions. It includes physical, sexual, and psychological harm by current or former partners. IPV can happen to anyone, regardless of gender, sexuality, or background. It's rooted in power and control dynamics.

IPV has far-reaching consequences for victims, including physical injuries, mental health issues, and long-term trauma. Survivors face many barriers to seeking help, like fear, shame, and economic dependence. Understanding these challenges is crucial for developing effective prevention and support strategies.

Intimate Partner Violence: Definition and Forms

Types of Intimate Partner Violence

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• Intimate partner violence (IPV) refers to physical violence, sexual violence, stalking, or psychological harm by a current or former partner or spouse
• Physical violence includes behaviors such as hitting, kicking, shoving, or using a weapon to cause injury
• Sexual violence involves forcing a partner to engage in a sex act when the partner does not or cannot consent
• Stalking is a pattern of repeated, unwanted attention and contact that causes fear or concern for one's safety or the safety of others (following, harassing phone calls, threatening messages)
• Psychological aggression includes verbal and non-verbal communication with the intent to harm another person mentally or emotionally and/or exert control over another person (insults, humiliation, threats)

Scope of Intimate Partner Violence

• IPV can occur among heterosexual or same-sex couples and does not require sexual intimacy
• Intimate partner violence is not limited to physical acts of aggression but encompasses a range of abusive behaviors designed to exert power and control over a partner
• Examples of non-physical forms of IPV include financial abuse (controlling access to money), isolation (restricting contact with friends and family), and coercion (pressuring a partner to engage in unwanted activities)

Prevalence and Incidence of Intimate Partner Violence

Rates of Intimate Partner Violence

• Approximately 1 in 4 women and nearly 1 in 10 men have experienced intimate partner violence (sexual violence, physical violence, and/or stalking) in their lifetime
• Women ages 18 to 24 and 25 to 34 generally experience the highest rates of intimate partner violence
• Intimate partner violence affects individuals across all socioeconomic, racial, and ethnic backgrounds, but some populations may be at higher risk due to intersecting factors (poverty, discrimination, lack of access to resources)

Underreporting of Intimate Partner Violence

• Many IPV cases go unreported due to fear, shame, or a lack of awareness about available resources and support
• Victims may fear retaliation from their abuser, loss of financial support, or not being believed by authorities
• Cultural and societal stigma surrounding IPV can make it difficult for survivors to come forward and seek help
• Underreporting of IPV can lead to an underestimation of its true prevalence and hinder efforts to prevent and address this issue

Risk Factors and Consequences of Intimate Partner Violence

Individual and Relationship Risk Factors

• Individual risk factors for IPV perpetration include low self-esteem, low income, low academic achievement, young age, aggressive or delinquent behavior as a youth, heavy alcohol and drug use, depression, anger and hostility, antisocial personality traits, borderline personality traits, prior history of being physically abusive, having few friends and being isolated from other people, unemployment, emotional dependence and insecurity, belief in strict gender roles, desire for power and control in relationships, being a victim of physical or psychological abuse, history of experiencing poor parenting as a child, and history of experiencing physical discipline as a child
• Relationship risk factors include marital conflict (fights, tension, and other struggles), marital instability (divorces or separations), dominance and control of the relationship by one partner over the other, economic stress, and unhealthy family relationships and interactions
• Witnessing or experiencing abuse as a child can increase the likelihood of perpetrating or being a victim of IPV in adulthood

Consequences of Intimate Partner Violence

• Consequences for IPV victims include physical injury, poor mental health, chronic health problems, low self-esteem, fear, anxiety, depression, suicidal thoughts, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), substance abuse, sexually transmitted infections, unintended pregnancy, and homicide
• Children exposed to IPV may experience emotional, behavioral, and cognitive difficulties, as well as an increased risk of perpetrating or experiencing violence in their own relationships later in life
• IPV can lead to lost productivity, increased healthcare costs, and strain on social services and the criminal justice system

Power and Control Dynamics in Abuse

The Power and Control Wheel

• IPV is based on an imbalance of power and control within a relationship, where one partner uses abusive tactics to maintain dominance over the other
• The Power and Control Wheel illustrates the pattern of actions abusers use to intentionally control or dominate their intimate partners, including coercion and threats, intimidation, emotional abuse, isolation, minimizing, denying, and blaming, using children, economic abuse, and male privilege
• Abusers often use a combination of tactics to maintain power and control, creating a cycle of abuse that can be difficult for victims to break free from

The Cycle of Abuse

• The cycle of abuse typically includes a tension-building phase, an acute or crisis phase, and a calm, loving respite phase, which can reinforce the victim's hope for change and make it harder to leave the relationship
• During the tension-building phase, the abuser may become increasingly irritable, critical, or controlling, leading to a sense of walking on eggshells for the victim
• The acute or crisis phase involves an explosive incident of physical, sexual, or emotional abuse, often leaving the victim feeling shocked, afraid, and powerless
• In the calm, loving respite phase, the abuser may apologize, express remorse, and promise to change, leading the victim to believe that the abuse will stop and the relationship can be salvaged
• This cycle can repeat itself multiple times, making it increasingly difficult for the victim to break free and seek help

Challenges Faced by Survivors of Abuse

Barriers to Seeking Help

• Survivors often face significant barriers to seeking help or leaving an abusive relationship, including fear of retaliation, economic dependence on the abuser, lack of social support, and concerns about the well-being of children
• Victims may experience feelings of shame, self-blame, and low self-esteem, making it difficult to reach out for assistance
• Societal stigma and victim-blaming attitudes can further deter survivors from seeking help or reporting abuse
• Abusers may use threats, intimidation, or manipulation to prevent their partners from seeking help or leaving the relationship

Navigating Support Systems

• Navigating the legal system and accessing community resources can be overwhelming and time-consuming for survivors, particularly those with limited financial means or support networks
• Survivors may face disbelief, minimization, or judgment from friends, family, or professionals when disclosing abuse, leading to feelings of isolation and hopelessness
• Lack of affordable housing, childcare, and employment opportunities can make it difficult for survivors to establish independence and safety after leaving an abusive relationship
• Inadequate funding and training for law enforcement, healthcare providers, and social services can limit the effectiveness of interventions and support for IPV survivors

Ongoing Safety Concerns

• Survivors may face ongoing safety concerns, even after leaving an abusive relationship, as abusers may continue to stalk, harass, or threaten them
• Abusers may use coercive control tactics, such as monitoring their partner's activities, to maintain a sense of power and control even after the relationship has ended
• Survivors with children may have to navigate complex custody and visitation arrangements, potentially exposing them to further abuse or manipulation
• The long-term emotional and psychological impact of IPV can make it difficult for survivors to rebuild their lives and establish healthy relationships in the future