4.3 National Movements in Greece, Belgium, and Poland

The 19th century saw a wave of national movements sweep across Europe, challenging the old order. Greece, Belgium, and Poland emerged as key battlegrounds in the struggle for self-determination, each with unique circumstances and outcomes that shaped the continent's political landscape.

These movements reflected the broader rise of liberalism and nationalism in Europe. While Greece and Belgium successfully established independent states, Poland's struggle against partition continued, highlighting the complex interplay of local aspirations, great power politics, and cultural identity in shaping national destinies.

Greek War of Independence

Origins and Key Organizations

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• Greek War of Independence began in 1821 and lasted until 1832
• Filiki Eteria, a secret organization founded in 1814, organized and initiated the revolution against Ottoman rule
• Alexandros Ypsilantis, Greek military commander, led the first major revolutionary action in 1821
  • Crossed the Prut River into Ottoman-held Moldavia
• Massacre of Greeks on the island of Chios in 1822 by Ottoman forces
  • Garnered international sympathy for the Greek cause
  • Inspired Eugène Delacroix's painting "The Massacre at Chios"

Turning Points and International Involvement

• Battle of Navarino in 1827 marked a turning point in the war
  • Combined naval forces of Britain, France, and Russia defeated the Ottoman-Egyptian fleet
• International support played a crucial role in the Greek struggle
  • Philhellenism movement in Western Europe (Lord Byron)
  • Russian interest in weakening Ottoman power in the Balkans
• Treaty of Constantinople in 1832 formally recognized Greek independence
  • Otto of Bavaria became the first King of Greece

Establishment of the Greek State

• Ioannis Kapodistrias elected as the first head of state of independent Greece in 1827
  • Established foundations of the modern Greek state
  • Implemented administrative and educational reforms
• Challenges in building a new nation
  • Integration of diverse regions and populations
  • Economic reconstruction after years of warfare
• Legacy of the Greek War of Independence
  • Inspired other Balkan nationalist movements
  • Weakened Ottoman control in Southeastern Europe

Belgian Revolution and Independence

Causes of Belgian Discontent

• Congress of Vienna's 1815 decision united Southern Netherlands (modern-day Belgium) with Dutch Republic
  • Created tensions due to cultural, linguistic, and religious differences
• Economic disparities between industrialized south and agricultural north
  • Belgian industrial centers (Liège, Ghent) vs. Dutch commercial interests
• Authoritarian policies of King William I of the Netherlands
  • Imposed Dutch as the official language
  • Fueled resentment among French-speaking Walloons and Dutch-speaking Flemings

Revolutionary Events and Key Moments

• July Revolution of 1830 in France inspired Belgian revolutionaries
  • Provided a model for uprising against foreign rule
• Performance of Daniel Auber's opera "La Muette de Portici" in Brussels on August 25, 1830
  • Sparked riots that quickly spread throughout southern provinces
• Formation of provisional government on September 26, 1830
  • Led by prominent Belgian liberals and Catholics
• Declaration of Belgian independence on October 4, 1830
  • Marked culmination of revolutionary movement

International Response and State Formation

• International support crucial for legitimizing Belgian independence
  • Britain and France played key roles in diplomatic negotiations
• London Conference of 1830-1831 recognized Belgian independence
  • Established Belgium as a neutral state
  • Guaranteed by major European powers
• Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha chosen as first King of the Belgians in 1831
  • Constitutional monarchy established
• Treaty of London in 1839 finalized Dutch recognition of Belgian independence
  • Set borders of the new Belgian state

Polish Uprisings and Partition

November Uprising (1830-1831)

• Rebellion against Russian rule in Congress Poland
  • Sparked by Tsar Nicholas I's plan to use Polish army against French July Revolution
• Initial military successes followed by Russian counteroffensive
  • Polish forces defeated at Battle of Ostrołęka (May 1831)
• Consequences of failure
  • Abolition of Polish constitution
  • Integration of Poland into Russian Empire as a province
  • "Great Emigration" of Polish elites to Western Europe (particularly France)

Kraków Uprising and January Uprising

• Kraków Uprising of 1846
  • Failed attempt to restore Polish independence
  • Resulted in annexation of Free City of Kraków by Austria
• January Uprising of 1863-1864 against Russian rule
  • Longest-lasting Polish insurrection of 19th century
  • Characterized by guerrilla warfare tactics
  • Failure led to intensified Russification policies

Impact on Polish Society and Culture

• Severe repression following failed rebellions
  • Executions, deportations to Siberia, confiscation of noble estates
• Dramatic alteration of Polish social structure
  • Weakening of traditional nobility (szlachta)
  • Emergence of new social classes (intelligentsia, urban workers)
• Development of Polish nationalism and preservation of cultural identity
  • Literature and arts as means of national expression (Adam Mickiewicz, Frédéric Chopin)
• Influence on political ideologies
  • Rise of positivism and socialism as alternatives to armed struggle

National Movements: Greece vs Belgium vs Poland

Strategies and International Context

• Greek War of Independence relied on guerrilla warfare tactics and international support
  • Philhellenism movement in Western Europe
  • Russian intervention against Ottoman Empire
• Belgian Revolution characterized by quick and successful uprising
  • Benefited from internal unity and favorable international circumstances
  • Support from Britain and France
• Polish national movements employed series of armed insurrections
  • Lacked significant external support for uprisings
  • Faced formidable opponents in Russia, Prussia, and Austria

Cultural and Linguistic Factors

• Language and religion played crucial roles in Greek and Belgian movements
  • Greek Orthodox Church as unifying force for Greek nationalism
  • Linguistic divide between Dutch-speaking Flemings and French-speaking Walloons in Belgium
• Polish cultural identity preserved despite loss of political autonomy
  • Role of Catholic Church in maintaining Polish traditions
  • Importance of Polish language in resistance to Russification and Germanization

Outcomes and Long-term Impact

• Greece and Belgium emerged as new nation-states
  • Redrew map of Southeastern Europe and Low Countries
  • Challenged legitimacy of multi-ethnic empires
• Poland's partition continued to influence Central and Eastern European politics
  • "Polish Question" remained unresolved until after World War I
  • Legacy of resistance shaped modern Polish national identity
• Varying degrees of success influenced future nationalist movements
  • Greek and Belgian examples inspired other European nationalities
  • Polish experience highlighted challenges of achieving independence against multiple great powers