Residential schools were government-sponsored institutions aimed at assimilating Indigenous children into Euro-American society. These schools, operating in Canada and the U.S. from the late 19th to late 20th centuries, forcibly separated children from their families and communities.
The schools suppressed Indigenous languages, cultures, and spiritual practices, often through harsh discipline and abuse. This system has left a lasting legacy of , cultural loss, and ongoing social challenges for Indigenous communities, sparking efforts for truth, reconciliation, and healing.
Origins of residential schools
Residential schools were a part of the larger colonial project to assimilate Indigenous peoples into Euro-American society and culture
The schools were established in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in both Canada and the United States, with the last residential school closing in Canada in 1996
The schools were a manifestation of the dominant society's belief in the superiority of European culture and the need to "civilize" Indigenous peoples
Government policies for assimilation
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Assimilation policies aimed to eradicate Indigenous cultures, languages, and spiritual practices
In the United States, the Civilization Fund Act of 1819 provided funding for schools to teach Indigenous children English, Christianity, and agricultural practices
In Canada, the of 1876 gave the government control over Indigenous peoples' lives, including the establishment of residential schools
Mandatory attendance policies forced Indigenous children to attend residential schools, often far from their home communities
Role of religious organizations
Various Christian denominations, including the Catholic, Anglican, Methodist, and Presbyterian churches, operated residential schools
Religious organizations believed in their mission to convert Indigenous peoples to Christianity and saw residential schools as a means to achieve this goal
The churches worked in partnership with the government, receiving funding and support to run the schools
Religious teachings and practices were central to the residential school curriculum, often at the expense of traditional Indigenous spiritual beliefs
Life in residential schools
Residential schools were characterized by strict regimentation, harsh discipline, and a focus on manual labor and religious instruction
Children were forced to adhere to a foreign way of life, with little regard for their physical, emotional, or cultural well-being
Many children experienced neglect, malnutrition, and exposure to diseases due to inadequate living conditions and medical care
Separation from families and communities
Children were removed from their families and communities, often forcibly, and sent to residential schools far from home
Separation from family and community disrupted the transmission of Indigenous knowledge, language, and cultural practices
Many children experienced profound loneliness, homesickness, and a sense of abandonment
Limited contact with family members was allowed, and visits were often restricted or prohibited
Strict discipline and abuse
Residential schools employed strict discipline and punishment to enforce obedience and conformity
Physical abuse, including beatings, whippings, and confinement, was common
Emotional and psychological abuse, such as humiliation, shaming, and degradation, was also prevalent
Sexual abuse by staff members and other students was a tragic reality for many children
The abuse experienced in residential schools has left lasting scars on survivors and their families
Suppression of Indigenous languages and cultures
Residential schools aimed to eradicate Indigenous languages and cultures, viewing them as inferior and obstacles to assimilation
Children were punished for speaking their native languages and engaging in traditional cultural practices
The use of English or French was strictly enforced, and children were often given new names to replace their Indigenous names
Traditional clothing, hairstyles, and personal possessions were confiscated and replaced with European-style clothing and belongings
The suppression of language and culture contributed to the erosion of Indigenous identities and the loss of cultural knowledge
Poor living conditions and health issues
Residential schools were often overcrowded, poorly ventilated, and unsanitary
Inadequate nutrition, coupled with strenuous manual labor, left many children malnourished and susceptible to disease
Communicable diseases, such as tuberculosis, influenza, and smallpox, spread rapidly in the close quarters of residential schools
Lack of proper medical care and attention led to high rates of illness and mortality among students
The poor living conditions and health issues in residential schools had lasting impacts on the physical and mental well-being of survivors
Impact on Indigenous communities
The residential school system's effects extend far beyond the individuals who attended, impacting families, communities, and entire nations
The legacy of residential schools continues to shape the lives of Indigenous peoples today, with many communities grappling with the ongoing consequences of this painful history
Intergenerational trauma
The trauma experienced by residential school survivors has been passed down to subsequent generations, creating a cycle of intergenerational trauma
Children of survivors often grew up in households affected by the emotional, psychological, and physical scars of their parents' experiences
Intergenerational trauma manifests in various ways, including higher rates of substance abuse, domestic violence, and mental health issues
Healing from intergenerational trauma requires acknowledging the impact of residential schools and providing support for affected individuals and families
Loss of language and cultural identity
The residential school system's suppression of Indigenous languages and cultures has led to a significant loss of cultural identity for many Indigenous peoples
As fewer people speak their native languages and practice traditional customs, the transmission of cultural knowledge becomes increasingly difficult
The and cultural identity can contribute to feelings of alienation, disconnection, and a sense of being "caught between two worlds"
Efforts to revitalize Indigenous languages and cultures are crucial for healing and strengthening Indigenous communities
Family and community breakdown
The residential school system disrupted traditional family structures and community networks
The removal of children from their families and communities weakened the bonds that held these social structures together
The abuse and trauma experienced in residential schools often led to difficulties in forming healthy relationships and parenting practices
The breakdown of families and communities has contributed to social issues such as domestic violence, substance abuse, and child welfare involvement
Ongoing social and economic challenges
Indigenous communities continue to face significant social and economic challenges, many of which are rooted in the legacy of residential schools
Lower educational attainment, higher rates of unemployment, and poverty are common in Indigenous communities
Inadequate housing, lack of access to healthcare, and limited economic opportunities perpetuate cycles of disadvantage
Addressing these ongoing challenges requires a holistic approach that acknowledges the historical context and supports Indigenous-led solutions
Resistance and resilience
Despite the oppressive nature of the residential school system, Indigenous children, families, and communities found ways to resist and maintain their identities
Acts of resistance and resilience took many forms, from small everyday acts to larger organized efforts
These acts of resistance and resilience demonstrate the strength and determination of Indigenous peoples in the face of adversity
Student acts of defiance
Children in residential schools often engaged in small acts of defiance to assert their agency and maintain their sense of self
Examples of student resistance include:
Speaking their native languages in secret
Sharing traditional stories and teachings with peers
Hiding personal possessions that connected them to their culture
Running away from the schools to return to their families
These acts of defiance, while often met with punishment, helped children maintain a connection to their identities and resist assimilation
Family efforts to maintain connections
Families of children in residential schools often went to great lengths to maintain connections and support their children
Parents and relatives would travel long distances to visit their children, despite the obstacles and restrictions imposed by school authorities
Families would send letters, care packages, and traditional foods to provide comfort and maintain cultural ties
Some families resisted the residential school system by hiding their children or refusing to send them to the schools
Community initiatives for healing and recovery
Indigenous communities have been at the forefront of efforts to heal from the trauma of residential schools and reclaim their cultures and identities
Community-led initiatives, such as healing circles, cultural camps, and language revitalization programs, provide spaces for healing and cultural reconnection
Indigenous organizations and advocacy groups have been instrumental in raising awareness about the impacts of residential schools and demanding action from governments and churches
Grassroots movements, such as the movement in Canada, have mobilized Indigenous peoples to assert their rights and push for social and political change
Truth and reconciliation efforts
In recent decades, there has been growing recognition of the need to address the legacy of residential schools and work towards truth and reconciliation
Truth and reconciliation efforts aim to acknowledge the harms caused by residential schools, support survivors and their families, and build a foundation for healing and renewed relationships between Indigenous peoples and non-Indigenous society
Official apologies and acknowledgments
Official apologies from governments and churches have been an important step in acknowledging the wrongs of the residential school system
In 2008, Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper issued a formal apology on behalf of the Canadian government for the residential school system
In the United States, the Obama administration issued an apology for the "violence, maltreatment, and neglect inflicted on Native Peoples" by the federal government, including the boarding school system
These apologies, while significant, are seen by many as only a starting point in the process of reconciliation
Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada
The of Canada (TRC) was established in 2008 as part of the Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement
The TRC's mandate was to document the history and impacts of the residential school system and to guide a process of truth and reconciliation
Over six years, the TRC gathered statements from thousands of residential school survivors, held public hearings, and conducted research into the residential school system
In 2015, the TRC released its final report, which included 94 Calls to Action for reconciliation, addressing a wide range of issues such as child welfare, education, health, and justice
Similar initiatives in the United States
In the United States, efforts to address the legacy of Native American boarding schools have been more decentralized than in Canada
The Native American Boarding School Healing Coalition, established in 2012, has been working to raise awareness about the impacts of boarding schools and advocate for healing and justice
In 2016, the National Native American Boarding School Healing Coalition launched a truth and reconciliation initiative to document the history and impacts of the boarding school system
The US government has taken some steps to acknowledge the harms of the boarding school era, such as the establishment of the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) to return the remains of Native American children buried at boarding schools to their families and communities
Calls for action and reform
Truth and reconciliation efforts have led to calls for action and reform in various areas related to Indigenous rights and well-being
Calls for action have focused on issues such as:
Revitalizing Indigenous languages and cultures
Improving educational outcomes for Indigenous students
Addressing the overrepresentation of Indigenous children in the child welfare system
Increasing access to healthcare and mental health services in Indigenous communities
Reforming the criminal justice system to address the overrepresentation of Indigenous peoples in prisons
Implementing these calls for action requires sustained commitment from governments, institutions, and non-Indigenous society to work in partnership with Indigenous peoples
Lasting legacy and ongoing struggles
The legacy of residential schools continues to shape the lives of Indigenous peoples in Canada, the United States, and beyond
While truth and reconciliation efforts have brought increased awareness and some progress, much work remains to be done to address the ongoing impacts of this painful history
Continued impact on Indigenous education
The residential school system has had a lasting impact on Indigenous education, with many communities still grappling with the consequences of this history
Intergenerational trauma and mistrust of educational institutions can make it difficult for Indigenous students to succeed in mainstream schools
Efforts to improve Indigenous education outcomes include incorporating Indigenous knowledge and teaching methods, increasing the number of Indigenous educators, and providing culturally responsive support services
Indigenous-led educational initiatives, such as tribal colleges and immersion schools, are playing a crucial role in revitalizing Indigenous languages and cultures and providing culturally relevant education
Revitalization of Indigenous languages and cultures
Revitalizing Indigenous languages and cultures is a critical aspect of healing from the legacy of residential schools
Many Indigenous communities are working to preserve and promote their languages through language nests, immersion programs, and other initiatives
Cultural revitalization efforts, such as traditional arts and crafts, ceremonies, and land-based learning, are helping to strengthen Indigenous identities and connections to heritage
Supporting the revitalization of Indigenous languages and cultures requires investment in community-led initiatives and the recognition of Indigenous peoples' rights to self-determination
Addressing systemic inequalities and discrimination
The legacy of residential schools is intertwined with broader systemic inequalities and discrimination faced by Indigenous peoples
Addressing these inequalities requires a comprehensive approach that tackles issues such as poverty, inadequate housing, lack of access to healthcare, and discrimination in the justice system
Governments and institutions must work in partnership with Indigenous communities to develop and implement policies and programs that address these systemic issues
Recognizing and respecting Indigenous rights, including the right to self-government and control over land and resources, is essential for creating a more just and equitable society
Healing and reconciliation as ongoing processes
Healing from the trauma of residential schools and working towards reconciliation are ongoing processes that require long-term commitment and effort
Supporting survivors and their families through culturally appropriate mental health services, healing programs, and other initiatives is crucial for promoting individual and community well-being
Reconciliation involves building new relationships between Indigenous peoples and non-Indigenous society based on respect, understanding, and a shared commitment to justice
Engaging in ongoing dialogue, education, and action to address the legacy of residential schools and promote reconciliation is the responsibility of all members of society
The path to healing and reconciliation is long and complex, but it is essential for creating a future in which Indigenous peoples can thrive and their rights, cultures, and identities are fully respected and celebrated