4.5 Wounded Knee Massacre

The Wounded Knee Massacre of 1890 marked a tragic end to the Indian Wars, highlighting the brutal culmination of U.S. expansion policies and Native American resistance. This event encapsulated decades of broken treaties, forced relocations, and cultural suppression that defined U.S.-Native relations.

The massacre occurred amid rising tensions fueled by the Ghost Dance movement and U.S. military presence on reservations. It resulted in the deaths of 150-300 Lakota, mostly women and children, leaving a lasting impact on Native communities and shaping future indigenous rights movements.

Background of Wounded Knee

• Wounded Knee Massacre marked a tragic culmination of decades-long conflicts between Native Americans and the U.S. government
• Incident occurred on December 29, 1890, near Wounded Knee Creek on the Lakota Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in South Dakota
• Represented a pivotal moment in Native American history, highlighting the ongoing struggle for sovereignty and cultural preservation

Lakota Ghost Dance movement

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• Religious revival spreading among Native American tribes in the late 19th century
• Promised spiritual renewal and the return of traditional ways of life
• Incorporated elements of traditional Native beliefs and Christian teachings
• Practiced through ritualistic circle dances and songs
• Viewed with suspicion and fear by U.S. authorities who misinterpreted its peaceful nature

Tensions with U.S. government

• Broken treaties and forced relocation onto reservations fueled Native American distrust
• Diminishing buffalo herds threatened Lakota way of life and economic independence
• Implementation of assimilation policies aimed at erasing Native cultures
• Increased military presence on reservations heightened anxiety among Native communities
• Growing resistance to government control and desire for self-determination among tribes

Arrival of 7th Cavalry

• Deployed to Pine Ridge Reservation to quell perceived unrest related to Ghost Dance
• Commanded by Colonel James W. Forsyth, carried historical baggage from Little Bighorn
• Arrived with a force of 500 soldiers, heavily armed and on high alert
• Intercepted Chief Big Foot's band of Miniconjou Lakota en route to Pine Ridge Agency
• Escorted the Lakota group to Wounded Knee Creek, establishing a tense encampment

Key figures

Chief Big Foot

• Lakota leader of Miniconjou band, also known as Spotted Elk
• Sought peaceful resolution and protection for his people during tumultuous times
• Led his group towards Pine Ridge Agency seeking refuge with Chief Red Cloud
• Suffered from pneumonia during the journey, weakening his ability to mediate
• Killed during the massacre, his frozen body later photographed in a symbolic image

Colonel James W. Forsyth

• Commander of the 7th Cavalry Regiment during the Wounded Knee incident
• Tasked with disarming Big Foot's band and escorting them to a military prison
• Made critical decisions that escalated tensions during the disarmament process
• Faced criticism and a military inquiry for his handling of the situation
• Later exonerated by the Army, but his actions remained controversial

Black Coyote incident

• Lakota man identified as the initial trigger for the outbreak of violence
• Reportedly deaf and did not understand orders to surrender his rifle
• Struggled with soldiers attempting to take his weapon, leading to its discharge
• Gunshot sparked widespread panic and confusion among both Lakota and soldiers
• Debate continues over the exact circumstances and responsibility for this pivotal moment

Events of the massacre

Disarmament attempt

• 7th Cavalry surrounded Lakota camp on morning of December 29, 1890
• Soldiers demanded surrender of all weapons from Big Foot's band
• Search of tipis yielded only a few weapons, increasing soldiers' suspicion
• Lakota men gathered in council area while women and children remained in camp
• Tensions escalated as soldiers grew impatient with the slow disarmament process

Outbreak of violence

• Scuffle over Black Coyote's rifle led to its discharge, igniting chaos
• Soldiers opened fire indiscriminately into the Lakota crowd
• Lakota warriors fought back with concealed weapons and hand-to-hand combat
• Hotchkiss guns on nearby hill unleashed devastating firepower on the camp
• Fighting spread rapidly, engulfing the entire area in violence

Civilian casualties

• Women and children caught in crossfire as they fled the camp
• Many killed by artillery fire as they sought shelter in a nearby ravine
• Soldiers pursued fleeing Lakota for miles, killing many who tried to escape
• Reports of wounded being executed, including women and children
• Freezing temperatures compounded the suffering of survivors and wounded

Aftermath and consequences

Death toll and injuries

• Estimates vary, but approximately 150-300 Lakota killed, including women and children
• At least 25 U.S. soldiers died, many possibly from friendly fire in the chaos
• Dozens of Lakota wounded, many left to die in the bitter cold
• Survivors faced harsh winter conditions with little food or shelter
• Long-term physical and psychological trauma impacted both Lakota and soldiers

Military honors controversy

• 20 Medals of Honor awarded to 7th Cavalry soldiers for actions at Wounded Knee
• Sparked debate over the appropriateness of honoring participants in a massacre
• Native American groups have long campaigned for rescinding these medals
• Controversy highlights differing interpretations of the event's nature
• Ongoing discussions about how to address this aspect of military history

Impact on Lakota people

• Devastated Lakota population and morale, marking end of armed resistance
• Accelerated loss of traditional culture and way of life
• Deepened distrust and resentment towards U.S. government
• Led to increased poverty and dependence on reservation system
• Became a rallying point for future generations of Native American activists

Historical interpretations

U.S. government perspective

• Initially portrayed as a necessary military action against hostile Indians
• Official reports downplayed civilian casualties and emphasized soldier heroism
• Justified as part of broader policy to subdue Native American resistance
• Gradually shifted towards acknowledging the event as a regrettable tragedy
• Modern government statements express remorse without full admission of culpability

Native American accounts

• Emphasize the peaceful intentions of Big Foot's band seeking protection
• Describe indiscriminate killing of unarmed men, women, and children
• Highlight broken promises and betrayal by U.S. government and military
• Preserve oral histories passed down through generations
• Stress the long-term impact on Lakota culture and community

Modern scholarly analysis

• Examines Wounded Knee within broader context of U.S.-Native American relations
• Critiques earlier accounts for bias and inaccuracies in both military and Native sources
• Utilizes archaeological evidence and newly discovered documents to reconstruct events
• Explores psychological factors contributing to the escalation of violence
• Considers Wounded Knee as a case study in colonialism and cultural conflict

Cultural significance

Symbolism in Native resistance

• Wounded Knee became a powerful symbol of Native American oppression
• Inspired future generations of activists in the fight for indigenous rights
• Referenced in protests and political actions (American Indian Movement occupation in 1973)
• Represents resilience and survival of Native cultures despite historical trauma
• Used to advocate for recognition of past injustices and calls for reconciliation

Artistic and literary depictions

• Inspired numerous books, poems, and songs across various genres
• Notable works include Dee Brown's "Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee"
• Visual artists have created paintings, sculptures, and installations commemorating the event
• Native American artists use Wounded Knee imagery to explore themes of identity and history
• Documentaries and films have brought the story to wider audiences, shaping public perception

Wounded Knee in popular culture

• Referenced in music lyrics across multiple genres (folk, rock, hip-hop)
• Featured in television shows and movies dealing with Native American themes
• Used as a shorthand for historical injustices against indigenous peoples
• Influences naming of organizations and events related to Native rights
• Contributes to ongoing discussions about representation of Native history in media

Legacy and remembrance

Memorials and commemorations

• Wounded Knee National Historic Landmark established in 1965
• Annual ceremonies held at the site to honor victims and survivors
• Controversial monument erected in 1903, seen by some as offensive
• Efforts to create more culturally appropriate memorials and educational centers
• Debate over repatriation of artifacts and remains from the massacre site

Continued activism

• Wounded Knee inspires modern Native American rights movements
• Used to advocate for land rights, cultural preservation, and sovereignty
• Informs discussions on issues like mascots, environmental protection, and education
• Shapes Native American political engagement and representation
• Influences international indigenous rights movements and solidarity efforts

Reconciliation efforts

• Formal apologies from some government officials and religious organizations
• Initiatives to improve education about Wounded Knee and Native American history
• Cross-cultural dialogue programs between Native and non-Native communities
• Calls for federal recognition of the event as a massacre rather than a battle
• Ongoing challenges in addressing historical trauma and building trust

Historical context

Indian Wars timeline

• Wounded Knee considered the last major armed conflict of the Indian Wars
• Followed decades of warfare between Native tribes and U.S. forces (1850s-1890s)
• Notable conflicts included Little Bighorn (1876) and Nez Perce War (1877)
• Represented shift from large-scale battles to smaller, more localized conflicts
• Marked transition to new era of Native American-U.S. relations focused on reservations

U.S. expansion policies

• Manifest Destiny ideology drove westward expansion and land acquisition
• Homestead Act of 1862 encouraged settlement of Native territories
• Treaties often used to legitimize land cessions, frequently broken or ignored
• Military campaigns aimed at forcibly relocating tribes to reservations
• Assimilation policies sought to eradicate Native cultures and languages

Native American reservation system

• Established to confine Native populations to designated areas
• Dramatically reduced land base and access to traditional resources
• Imposed unfamiliar agricultural practices and economic systems
• Facilitated government control over Native education and religious practices
• Created long-term dependencies and social challenges within Native communities