5.3 Confucianism

Confucianism, originating in ancient China, profoundly shaped Korean culture for centuries. It influenced governance, education, and social structures, emphasizing moral cultivation and social harmony. The philosophy gained prominence during the Three Kingdoms period and became dominant in the Joseon Dynasty.

Core Confucian principles in Korea focused on the Five Relationships, filial piety, and social harmony. These ideas shaped family dynamics, social expectations, and political systems. Confucian institutions like civil service exams and academies reinforced these values, deeply impacting Korean society and daily life.

Origins of Confucianism

• Confucianism emerged as a philosophical and ethical system in ancient China, profoundly shaping Korean culture and society for centuries
• Korean adoption of Confucian principles began during the Three Kingdoms period (57 BCE - 935 CE), influencing governance, education, and social structures

Early Chinese influences

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• Developed by Chinese philosopher Confucius (551-479 BCE) during the Spring and Autumn period
• Emphasized moral cultivation, social harmony, and proper governance
• Spread through the teachings of Confucius' disciples and subsequent scholars
• Gained prominence during the Han Dynasty (206 BCE - 220 CE) as state ideology

Introduction to Korea

• Introduced to Korea through diplomatic and cultural exchanges with China
• Gradually integrated into Korean society during the Three Kingdoms period
• Gained official status during the Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392)
• Became the dominant ideology during the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910)

Core principles

• Confucianism in Korea focused on cultivating moral character and maintaining social order
• Korean scholars adapted Confucian teachings to fit local contexts and traditions

Five relationships

• Ruler-subject relationship emphasized loyalty and benevolence
• Father-son relationship stressed filial piety and respect
• Husband-wife relationship promoted harmony and complementary roles
• Elder-younger sibling relationship encouraged care and obedience
• Friend-friend relationship valued trust and mutual support

Filial piety

• Central tenet of Korean Confucianism, emphasizing respect and care for parents and ancestors
• Manifested through obedience, financial support, and performance of ancestral rites
• Extended to loyalty towards rulers and elders in society
• Influenced family dynamics, inheritance practices, and social expectations

Social harmony

• Emphasized maintaining balance and order in society
• Promoted the idea of each person fulfilling their designated role
• Encouraged conflict resolution through compromise and mediation
• Stressed the importance of education in cultivating moral character

Confucian institutions

• Korean society developed various institutions to promote and maintain Confucian values
• These institutions played a crucial role in shaping the social and political landscape of Korea

Civil service examinations

• Known as gwageo, introduced during the Goryeo Dynasty and refined in the Joseon period
• Tested candidates on Confucian classics, literature, and policy issues
• Served as the primary means of social mobility for commoners
• Divided into military and civil branches, with civil exams holding higher prestige
• Reinforced the importance of Confucian learning in Korean society

Confucian academies

• Called seowon, established during the mid-Joseon period
• Served as centers for Confucian learning and scholarship
• Provided education in Confucian classics, history, and literature
• Acted as local hubs for intellectual discourse and political discussions
• Played a role in preserving and transmitting Korean Confucian traditions

Impact on Korean society

• Confucianism deeply influenced Korean social structures, values, and daily life
• Shaped interpersonal relationships, family dynamics, and societal expectations

Social hierarchy

• Established a rigid class system based on birth and occupation
• Divided society into yangban (scholar-officials), chungin (middle class), sangmin (commoners), and cheonmin (outcasts)
• Emphasized respect for elders and social superiors
• Limited social mobility, with exceptions through civil service examinations

Gender roles

• Promoted patriarchal society with distinct roles for men and women
• Emphasized male dominance in public and domestic spheres
• Restricted women's education and participation in public life
• Introduced the concept of "three obediences" for women (to father, husband, and son)
• Valued female chastity and devotion to family

Family structure

• Centered around the patrilineal extended family system
• Emphasized the importance of male heirs for continuing family lineage
• Practiced primogeniture, with eldest son inheriting family property and responsibilities
• Encouraged large families and multi-generational households
• Prioritized family interests over individual desires

Confucianism in politics

• Confucian principles heavily influenced Korean political systems and governance
• Shaped the relationship between rulers, officials, and subjects

Role of the monarch

• Viewed as the "Son of Heaven" with a mandate to rule justly
• Expected to embody Confucian virtues and serve as a moral example
• Responsible for maintaining harmony between Heaven, Earth, and humanity
• Advised by scholar-officials on matters of governance and ethics
• Performed important state rituals to ensure cosmic balance

Scholar-officials

• Comprised the yangban class, educated in Confucian classics
• Served as government administrators and advisors to the monarch
• Expected to uphold moral standards and provide ethical guidance
• Engaged in factional politics based on different interpretations of Confucian principles
• Played a crucial role in policy-making and implementation

Neo-Confucianism in Korea

• Neo-Confucianism, a revitalized form of Confucianism, gained prominence in Korea during the late Goryeo and Joseon periods
• Integrated metaphysical and cosmological elements into traditional Confucian thought

Zhu Xi's influence

• Korean scholars adopted the teachings of Chinese Neo-Confucian philosopher Zhu Xi (1130-1200)
• Emphasized the concepts of li (principle) and qi (material force)
• Promoted self-cultivation and the investigation of things to understand universal principles
• Influenced Korean interpretations of human nature and moral development
• Shaped educational curricula and examination content

Korean Neo-Confucian scholars

• Yi Hwang (1501-1570), also known as Toegye, developed the "Four-Seven Debate" on human nature
• Yi I (1536-1584), known as Yulgok, proposed the "Single-Force Theory" of li and qi
• Many scholars focused on practical application of Neo-Confucian principles in governance
• Debated interpretations of classical texts and their relevance to Korean society
• Established influential schools of thought that shaped Korean intellectual history

Confucian rituals and practices

• Confucian rituals played a central role in Korean social and religious life
• These practices reinforced social hierarchies and cultural values

Ancestor worship

• Considered a fundamental duty in Korean Confucian society
• Involved regular offerings of food, drink, and incense to ancestral spirits
• Performed at home altars and family shrines
• Included elaborate ceremonies on important dates (birthdays, death anniversaries)
• Believed to maintain harmony between the living and the deceased

Coming-of-age ceremonies

• Marked important transitions in an individual's life
• Gwallye ceremony for boys, typically performed at age 15-20
• Gyerye ceremony for girls, usually conducted before marriage
• Involved donning adult clothing and receiving new names
• Symbolized acceptance of adult responsibilities and Confucian social roles

Confucianism vs Buddhism

• The introduction of Confucianism led to tensions with the previously dominant Buddhism
• Resulted in a complex relationship between the two belief systems in Korean society

Ideological conflicts

• Confucians criticized Buddhist otherworldliness and monastic traditions
• Argued that Buddhism neglected social and familial duties
• Opposed Buddhist economic influence and tax exemptions
• Led to persecution of Buddhism during the early Joseon period
• Resulted in the closure of many Buddhist temples and restrictions on monks

Syncretic practices

• Despite conflicts, many Koreans incorporated elements of both traditions
• Buddhist concepts of karma and rebirth influenced Confucian ancestor worship
• Some Confucian scholars studied Buddhist texts for their philosophical insights
• Buddhist temples often included shrines for Confucian sages
• Folk religious practices blended elements of Confucianism, Buddhism, and shamanism

Decline of Confucianism

• Confucianism's dominance in Korea began to wane in the late 19th and early 20th centuries
• Various factors contributed to its declining influence in Korean society

Western influences

• Introduction of Christianity challenged Confucian religious practices
• Western scientific and technological advancements questioned traditional knowledge
• Exposure to Western political ideas (democracy, individual rights) challenged Confucian hierarchy
• Modern education systems reduced emphasis on Confucian classics
• Western-style legal systems replaced traditional Confucian-based laws

Modernization challenges

• Industrialization and urbanization disrupted traditional family structures
• Rise of nationalism questioned Korea's cultural reliance on Chinese thought
• Japanese colonial rule (1910-1945) attempted to suppress Korean Confucian traditions
• Post-war economic development prioritized practical skills over classical learning
• Emergence of new social classes and occupations challenged rigid Confucian hierarchy

Legacy in modern Korea

• Despite its decline, Confucianism continues to influence various aspects of contemporary Korean society
• Many Confucian values have been adapted to fit modern contexts

Educational values

• Strong emphasis on academic achievement and self-improvement
• Respect for teachers and educational institutions
• Competitive examination culture (college entrance exams)
• Prioritization of education as a means of social mobility
• Continued interest in studying classical Chinese and Korean texts

Business practices

• Hierarchical corporate structures reflecting Confucian social order
• Emphasis on harmony and consensus in decision-making
• Importance of personal relationships (guanxi) in business dealings
• Respect for age and seniority in workplace interactions
• Corporate social responsibility influenced by Confucian ethics

Social norms

• Continued emphasis on filial piety and respect for elders
• Persistence of patriarchal family structures, albeit in modified forms
• Importance of social harmony and conflict avoidance
• Ritual practices (weddings, funerals) retaining Confucian elements
• Influence on language use, particularly in honorifics and formal speech