5.7 Hegemony

Hegemony is a powerful concept in literary theory that explains how dominant groups shape society's values and beliefs. It goes beyond political control, involving cultural influence and the creation of a shared worldview that seems natural and common sense.

Gramsci expanded hegemony beyond economics, emphasizing civil society's role in reinforcing power. He introduced counter-hegemony, showing how subordinate groups can challenge dominant ideologies. This concept is crucial for understanding power dynamics in literature and culture.

Concept of hegemony

• Hegemony is a key concept in literary theory and criticism that refers to the dominant power or influence exerted by a particular group, class, or nation over others
• The concept is particularly relevant in understanding how certain ideologies, cultural practices, and literary forms become dominant and shape the way we perceive and interpret the world

Definition of hegemony

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• Hegemony refers to the dominance or leadership of one social group, class, or nation over others
• It is not merely about direct political or economic control but also involves the ability to shape the cultural, ideological, and moral values of a society
• Hegemony operates through the consent of the dominated groups, who come to accept the dominant group's worldview as natural and common sense

Origins in Marxist theory

• The concept of hegemony has its roots in Marxist theory, particularly in the works of Italian philosopher and politician Antonio Gramsci
• Gramsci developed the concept to explain how the ruling class maintains its power not only through force and coercion but also through the production of consent
• He argued that the bourgeoisie maintains its dominance by creating a cultural and ideological consensus that presents its interests as the interests of society as a whole

Gramsci's contributions

• Gramsci expanded the concept of hegemony beyond the economic and political spheres to include the cultural and ideological dimensions
• He emphasized the role of civil society (institutions like schools, churches, and media) in reinforcing hegemonic power
• Gramsci also introduced the idea of "counter-hegemony," which refers to the struggle of subordinate groups to challenge and transform the dominant hegemony

Hegemony in culture

• Hegemony plays a significant role in shaping cultural practices, values, and beliefs in a society
• The dominant cultural forms and practices are often presented as natural, universal, and common sense, while alternative or oppositional forms are marginalized or suppressed

Role of dominant ideology

• The dominant ideology in a society serves to legitimize and naturalize the power of the ruling class or group
• It presents the interests and values of the dominant group as the interests and values of society as a whole
• The dominant ideology is disseminated through various cultural institutions, such as schools, media, and religious organizations

Shaping of common sense

• Hegemony operates by shaping the "common sense" of a society, which refers to the taken-for-granted assumptions, beliefs, and values that people hold
• The dominant ideology becomes embedded in everyday practices and interactions, making it appear natural and inevitable
• Common sense is not fixed or universal but is historically and culturally specific and can be challenged and transformed

Consent vs coercion

• Hegemony relies more on consent than coercion to maintain its power
• The dominant group seeks to win the active consent of subordinate groups by presenting its interests as universal and beneficial to all
• However, hegemony is never complete or stable and always involves a degree of coercion or force to suppress alternative or oppositional views

Hegemony and power

• Hegemony is closely related to the exercise of power in a society, particularly the power of the state and the ruling class
• However, hegemony operates not only through the state apparatus but also through civil society and the production of consent

Relationship to state power

• The state plays a crucial role in maintaining hegemony by using its coercive apparatus (police, military) to enforce the dominant order
• However, the state also relies on ideological apparatuses (schools, media) to produce consent and legitimize its power
• The relationship between state power and hegemony is complex and varies in different historical and social contexts

Hegemony in civil society

• Civil society refers to the realm of voluntary associations, institutions, and practices that are relatively autonomous from the state
• Hegemony operates through civil society by shaping the values, beliefs, and practices of individuals and groups
• Civil society institutions, such as schools, churches, and media, play a crucial role in reproducing hegemonic power

Hegemony and class relations

• Hegemony is closely tied to class relations and the struggle between dominant and subordinate classes
• The ruling class seeks to maintain its hegemony by presenting its interests as universal and by incorporating elements of subordinate class cultures
• However, hegemony is always contested and can be challenged by counter-hegemonic movements that seek to transform the dominant order

Hegemony in literature

• Literature plays a significant role in both reproducing and challenging hegemonic power
• The literary canon, dominant literary forms, and critical practices are shaped by hegemonic forces, but literature can also serve as a site of resistance and transformation

Literary canon formation

• The literary canon refers to the body of works that are considered the most important and influential in a given culture or tradition
• The formation of the canon is shaped by hegemonic forces, such as the interests of dominant social groups, institutions, and ideologies
• The canon often excludes or marginalizes works by subordinate groups (women, people of color, working-class writers)

Dominant literary forms

• Hegemonic power shapes the dominant literary forms and genres in a given historical period
• For example, the novel emerged as the dominant literary form in the 19th century, reflecting the values and interests of the rising middle class
• Dominant literary forms often marginalize or exclude alternative or oppositional forms (oral literature, popular genres)

Counter-hegemonic literature

• Counter-hegemonic literature refers to works that challenge or subvert the dominant hegemony
• These works often give voice to marginalized or subordinate groups and present alternative worldviews and values
• Examples of counter-hegemonic literature include postcolonial, feminist, and working-class writing

Hegemony and identity

• Hegemony plays a significant role in shaping individual and collective identities, particularly in relation to race, gender, and sexuality
• Hegemonic norms and values shape the way individuals perceive themselves and others, often leading to the marginalization or oppression of subordinate groups

Race and hegemony

• Hegemonic power often operates through the construction of racial hierarchies and the marginalization of non-dominant racial groups
• Racism is not merely a matter of individual prejudice but is embedded in the structures and practices of society
• Counter-hegemonic movements, such as the civil rights movement and Black Lives Matter, challenge the hegemony of white supremacy

Gender and hegemony

• Hegemonic power shapes gender norms and relations, often privileging masculine values and practices over feminine ones
• Patriarchy is a form of hegemony that subordinates women and marginalizes non-binary and transgender identities
• Feminist movements challenge the hegemony of patriarchy and seek to transform gender relations

Hegemonic masculinity

• Hegemonic masculinity refers to the dominant form of masculinity in a given society, which subordinates other forms of masculinity and femininity
• Hegemonic masculinity is often associated with traits such as aggression, dominance, and emotional stoicism
• The concept has been used to analyze the ways in which hegemonic masculinity is reproduced and challenged in literature and popular culture

Resistance to hegemony

• Hegemony is never complete or stable and is always contested by counter-hegemonic forces that seek to challenge and transform the dominant order
• Resistance to hegemony can take many forms, from organized political movements to everyday practices of subversion and appropriation

Forms of counter-hegemony

• Counter-hegemony refers to the struggle of subordinate groups to challenge and transform the dominant hegemony
• Counter-hegemonic movements can take many forms, including political parties, social movements, and cultural practices
• Examples of counter-hegemonic movements include the labor movement, the civil rights movement, and the feminist movement

Subcultures and hegemony

• Subcultures refer to groups that have values, practices, and identities that are distinct from the dominant culture
• Subcultures can serve as sites of resistance to hegemonic power, challenging dominant norms and values
• Examples of subcultures include punk, hip-hop, and queer subcultures

Literature as resistance

• Literature can serve as a form of resistance to hegemonic power, giving voice to marginalized or subordinate groups and presenting alternative worldviews and values
• Counter-hegemonic literature challenges the dominant literary canon and forms, often experimenting with new styles and techniques
• Examples of literature as resistance include postcolonial literature, feminist literature, and working-class literature

Hegemony and globalization

• Hegemony operates not only within nations but also on a global scale, shaping the relations between dominant and subordinate nations and cultures
• Globalization has intensified the reach and power of hegemonic forces, particularly through the spread of Western cultural forms and the dominance of the English language

Cultural imperialism

• Cultural imperialism refers to the dominance of one culture over others, often through the export of cultural products and practices
• Western cultural forms, such as Hollywood films and popular music, have become hegemonic on a global scale, often marginalizing or displacing local cultural forms
• Cultural imperialism is closely tied to economic and political imperialism, as dominant nations use their cultural power to maintain their economic and political dominance

Hegemony of English language

• The English language has become hegemonic on a global scale, serving as the dominant language of business, science, and popular culture
• The spread of English is closely tied to the economic and political dominance of English-speaking nations, particularly the United States
• The hegemony of English marginalizes other languages and cultures and can serve as a barrier to access and participation in global networks and institutions

Postcolonial challenges to hegemony

• Postcolonial theory and literature challenge the hegemony of Western culture and the legacy of colonialism
• Postcolonial writers and theorists seek to reclaim and valorize the cultures and histories of formerly colonized nations and peoples
• Postcolonial challenges to hegemony often involve the appropriation and subversion of Western cultural forms and the creation of new, hybrid forms that reflect the experiences and identities of postcolonial subjects

Critiques of hegemony

• While the concept of hegemony has been influential in literary theory and criticism, it has also been subject to various critiques and limitations
• Some critics argue that the concept is too totalizing and does not account for the complexity and diversity of power relations in society

Limitations of hegemony theory

• Hegemony theory has been criticized for its tendency to reduce all social relations to relations of domination and subordination
• It may not fully account for the agency and resistance of subordinate groups or the contradictions and instabilities within hegemonic formations
• The concept may also be limited in its ability to explain social change and transformation, as it tends to emphasize the stability and reproduction of hegemonic power

Alternatives to hegemony

• Some theorists have proposed alternatives to hegemony that emphasize the plurality and contingency of power relations
• For example, Michel Foucault's concept of power as a network of relations that is diffuse and productive rather than centralized and repressive
• Other alternatives include theories of intersectionality, which emphasize the multiple and overlapping forms of oppression and identity

Post-hegemony and beyond

• Some theorists have argued that the concept of hegemony may no longer be adequate to explain the complexities of contemporary global power relations
• The rise of new forms of power, such as neoliberalism and the network society, may require new theoretical frameworks and concepts
• Post-hegemony theory seeks to move beyond the binary of domination and resistance and to emphasize the fluidity and hybridity of power relations in the contemporary world