5.2 Natural and Cultural Site Formation Processes

Site formation processes shape archaeological sites over time. Natural processes like erosion and deposition can bury or expose remains, while cultural processes like construction and abandonment create new contexts and leave behind artifacts.

Understanding these processes is crucial for interpreting archaeological sites accurately. Archaeologists must consider how both natural and human-caused changes have affected the preservation and distribution of artifacts and features at a site.

Natural and Cultural Site Formation Processes

Natural vs cultural site formation

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  Erosion and Deposition by Streams | Physical Geography View original

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  Overview of Relative Age and Orientation of Geologic Layers – Laboratory Manual for Earth Science View original

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  Why It Matters: Rocks and the Rock Cycle | Geology View original

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  Erosion and Deposition by Streams | Physical Geography View original

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  Overview of Relative Age and Orientation of Geologic Layers – Laboratory Manual for Earth Science View original

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Top images from around the web for Natural vs cultural site formation

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  Erosion and Deposition by Streams | Physical Geography View original

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• 

  Overview of Relative Age and Orientation of Geologic Layers – Laboratory Manual for Earth Science View original

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• 

  Why It Matters: Rocks and the Rock Cycle | Geology View original

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  Erosion and Deposition by Streams | Physical Geography View original

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  Overview of Relative Age and Orientation of Geologic Layers – Laboratory Manual for Earth Science View original

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• Natural site formation processes occur without human intervention through means such as erosion, deposition (alluvial, colluvial, aeolian), and bioturbation (animal burrowing, root growth)
• Cultural site formation processes result from human activities including construction (houses, walls, roads), abandonment (site decay, de facto refuse), and refuse disposal (primary at use location, secondary away from use location)

Natural processes in archaeology

• Erosion removes sediment or soil by wind, water, or ice which can expose or destroy archaeological remains (artifacts, features, sites)
• Deposition accumulates sediment or soil and can bury and preserve archaeological remains through:
  • Alluvial deposition by flowing water (rivers, streams)
  • Colluvial deposition by gravity on slopes (hillsides, cliffs)
  • Aeolian deposition by wind (sand dunes, loess)
• Bioturbation disturbs sediment or soil by living organisms and can displace or damage archaeological remains through:
  • Animal burrowing (rodents, insects)
  • Root growth from plants and trees
  • Insect activity (ants, termites)

Cultural processes in site formation

• Construction builds structures or features that can create new archaeological contexts such as:
  • Residential buildings (houses, apartments)
  • Defensive structures (walls, palisades)
  • Infrastructure (roads, bridges)
  • Activity areas (hearths, storage pits)
• Abandonment is the deliberate or unintentional leaving of a site which can lead to:
  • Site decay and collapse of structures
  • Deposition of de facto refuse (items left behind during abandonment)
• Refuse disposal is the intentional discard of waste materials that can create distinct archaeological deposits in the form of:
  1. Primary refuse discarded at the location of use (food waste near a hearth)
  2. Secondary refuse discarded away from the location of use (trash pits, middens)

Post-depositional impact on remains

• Physical disturbance mixes or displaces archaeological remains due to bioturbation, erosion, or human activities (plowing, looting) which can affect the spatial and stratigraphic integrity of a site
• Chemical alteration changes the chemical composition of archaeological materials caused by soil acidity, moisture, or temperature fluctuations leading to the deterioration or preservation of organic remains (bone, wood, plant fibers)
• Differential preservation varies the degree of preservation based on material properties where organic materials (textiles, leather) degrade faster than inorganic materials (stone tools, pottery), creating biases in the archaeological record
• Implications for interpretation mean that post-depositional processes can affect the reliability and representativeness of archaeological data, requiring archaeologists to consider their impact when interpreting a site (site formation history, taphonomy)