5.2 Subjectivism and Moral Skepticism

Subjectivism and moral skepticism challenge the idea of universal moral truths. They argue that morality is based on personal opinions or that objective moral facts don't exist. This shakes up traditional views on ethics.

These perspectives have big impacts on how we make moral choices. They can lead to moral relativism or nihilism, but also promote open-mindedness. Understanding these views is key to grasping the complexities of moral philosophy.

Subjectivism and Moral Skepticism

Subjectivism: Moral Judgments Based on Personal Opinions

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• Subjectivism holds that moral judgments are based on personal opinions, feelings, or attitudes rather than objective facts or universal principles
• This view implies that what is morally right or wrong varies from person to person, depending on their individual beliefs and values
• For example, one person may believe that abortion is morally permissible based on their personal values of bodily autonomy and reproductive freedom, while another may believe it is morally wrong based on their personal values of sanctity of life and protection of the unborn
• Subjectivism challenges the idea of moral realism, which holds that moral facts exist independently of human beliefs or attitudes

Moral Skepticism: Challenging the Existence of Objective Moral Truths

• Moral skepticism is the view that there are no objective moral truths or that moral knowledge is impossible to attain
• Moral error theory, a form of moral skepticism, holds that all moral claims are false because they refer to non-existent moral facts or properties
  • For example, a moral error theorist might argue that claims like "murder is wrong" or "kindness is good" are false because there are no objective moral properties of wrongness or goodness that exist independently of human beliefs or attitudes
• Moral non-cognitivism, another form of moral skepticism, holds that moral claims are neither true nor false but are expressions of emotions, attitudes, or prescriptions
  • For example, a moral non-cognitivist might argue that the statement "stealing is wrong" is not a factual claim but rather an expression of disapproval or a prescription against stealing
• Moral skepticism, like subjectivism, challenges the idea of moral realism and the existence of objective moral truths
• However, while subjectivism allows for individual moral truths based on personal opinions, moral skepticism denies the existence of any moral truths altogether

Arguments for and Against

Arguments Supporting Subjectivism and Moral Skepticism

• The diversity of moral beliefs across cultures and individuals suggests that morality is subjective rather than objective
  • For example, some cultures practice arranged marriages, while others value individual choice in marriage partners; some cultures prioritize individual rights, while others prioritize communal harmony
• The difficulty of resolving moral disagreements and the apparent dependence of moral judgments on emotions and attitudes support subjectivism and moral skepticism
  • For example, debates over controversial issues like euthanasia, animal rights, or wealth redistribution often involve conflicting moral intuitions and deeply held emotions rather than objective facts or principles
• The lack of empirical evidence for moral facts and the difficulty of explaining the nature and origin of moral properties lend credence to moral skepticism
  • For example, while we can observe and measure physical properties like mass or temperature, it is unclear how we could observe or measure moral properties like rightness or goodness

Arguments Against Subjectivism and Moral Skepticism

• The existence of widely shared moral intuitions (such as prohibitions against murder, theft, or incest) and the possibility of moral progress and convergence suggest that there may be some objective moral truths
• The practical need for moral objectivity in society, such as the need for shared moral norms and principles to guide behavior and resolve conflicts, counts against subjectivism and moral skepticism
• The apparent reality of moral experience, the coherence and utility of moral discourse, and the negative consequences of abandoning moral objectivity for individual and social well-being provide reasons to reject moral skepticism
  • For example, most people seem to experience moral obligations, guilt, or indignation as real and binding, not merely as personal preferences or expressions of emotion
  • Moral discourse and reasoning seem to presuppose the existence of moral truths and the possibility of moral knowledge, even if these are difficult to establish conclusively
  • A society without any shared moral objectivity might devolve into nihilism, egoism, or "might makes right," with detrimental effects on social cooperation, individual rights, and human flourishing

Impact on Ethical Decision-Making

Implications of Subjectivism for Moral Reasoning and Behavior

• Subjectivism implies that individuals are the ultimate arbiters of moral truth, leading to moral relativism and potentially undermining the authority of moral norms and principles
  • For example, if morality is purely subjective, then there may be no basis for criticizing or condemning the behavior of others who have different moral beliefs, such as those who engage in hate speech, discrimination, or cruelty
• Subjectivism can also lead to moral uncertainty and indecision in the face of complex moral dilemmas, as there may be no objective criteria for resolving conflicting moral claims
  • For example, in a situation where one must choose between lying to protect someone's feelings and telling the truth to uphold honesty, a subjectivist may have difficulty determining which course of action is morally right, as both honesty and benevolence are subjectively valued moral principles

Implications of Moral Skepticism for Moral Reasoning and Behavior

• Moral skepticism can lead to moral nihilism, the view that nothing is morally right or wrong, or moral non-cognitivism, the view that moral claims are neither true nor false
  • For example, if all moral claims are false or meaningless, as moral error theory suggests, then there may be no moral reasons to act one way or another, leading to amorality or arbitrary decision-making
• Moral skepticism can undermine moral motivation and responsibility by denying the objective bindingness of moral obligations
  • For example, if moral claims are mere expressions of emotion or attitude, as moral non-cognitivism suggests, then there may be no compelling reason to follow moral norms or principles, especially when they conflict with self-interest or personal desires

Potential Benefits of Subjectivism and Moral Skepticism for Moral Reasoning

• Despite their challenges to moral objectivity, subjectivism and moral skepticism can also promote moral humility, open-mindedness, and tolerance by acknowledging the diversity and fallibility of moral beliefs
  • For example, recognizing the subjectivity of moral judgments may lead individuals to be more receptive to alternative moral perspectives and less dogmatic about their own moral convictions
  • Moral skepticism can encourage critical reflection on the justification and coherence of moral beliefs, leading to more rigorous and sophisticated moral reasoning

Challenges to Universal Principles

Subjectivist and Skeptical Critiques of Moral Universalism

• Subjectivism and moral skepticism challenge the idea that there are universal moral principles that apply to all people at all times, regardless of their personal opinions or cultural backgrounds
• If morality is subjective or non-cognitive, as these views suggest, then there may be no objective basis for asserting the universality or authority of any particular moral principles
  • For example, the principle of utilitarianism (maximizing overall well-being) or Kant's categorical imperative (acting only on universalizable maxims) may be seen as reflecting particular cultural or philosophical commitments rather than objective moral truths
• The diversity of moral beliefs and practices across cultures and individuals seems to support the subjectivist and skeptical challenge to moral universalism
  • For example, some cultures prioritize individual autonomy and rights, while others prioritize communal harmony and duties; some cultures have strict sexual codes, while others are more permissive

Universalist Responses to Subjectivist and Skeptical Challenges

• Some argue that the existence of widely shared moral intuitions (such as prohibitions against murder or incest) and the practical need for moral coordination in society support the idea of universal moral principles
  • For example, the near-universal condemnation of genocide or the widespread acceptance of human rights suggest that there may be some common moral ground across cultures and individuals
• Others argue that universal moral principles can be justified on the basis of reason, such as the Kantian categorical imperative or the utilitarian principle of maximizing overall well-being
  • For example, Kant argues that the categorical imperative (acting only on universalizable maxims) is a requirement of practical reason, while utilitarians argue that maximizing overall well-being is a rational imperative given the equal consideration of all sentient beings
• Some universalists acknowledge the diversity of moral beliefs but argue that this reflects differences in the application or interpretation of universal principles rather than the absence of such principles altogether
  • For example, different cultures may have different views on what constitutes murder or what maximizes well-being, but they may still share a common commitment to the wrongness of murder or the importance of well-being

The Ongoing Debate and Its Implications for Moral Philosophy and Practice

• The debate between moral universalism and subjectivism/skepticism remains ongoing in moral philosophy, with important implications for how we understand and practice ethics in a diverse and complex world
• If subjectivism or skepticism is correct, then we may need to rethink the goals and methods of moral philosophy, focusing more on understanding the diversity and origins of moral beliefs rather than seeking universal moral truths
  • For example, moral philosophers may need to engage in more descriptive and comparative work, examining the moral beliefs and practices of different cultures and individuals and their psychological and social underpinnings
• If universalism is correct, then we may need to work harder to identify and justify universal moral principles that can guide behavior and resolve conflicts across diverse contexts
  • For example, moral philosophers may need to engage in more normative and constructive work, developing and defending universal principles (such as human rights, the Golden Rule, or the veil of ignorance) that can serve as a common moral framework for a globalized world
• Regardless of which view is correct, the subjectivist and skeptical challenges to moral universalism highlight the importance of moral humility, open-mindedness, and tolerance in a world of diverse and conflicting moral beliefs
  • For example, even if we believe in universal moral principles, we should be cautious about imposing them on others without understanding their cultural and individual contexts and engaging in respectful dialogue and persuasion