6.2 Art market and patronage

The art market and patronage system underwent significant changes in the late 19th century. The rise of the dealer-critic system shifted power away from traditional academic institutions, providing new opportunities for Impressionist and Post-Impressionist artists to showcase and sell their work.

This shift allowed for greater artistic freedom and experimentation. New collectors, including wealthy industrialists and middle-class patrons, emerged as important supporters of avant-garde art. The internationalization of the art market further expanded opportunities for artists and spread their influence globally.

Rise of dealer-critic system

• The dealer-critic system emerged as a new model for promoting and selling art in the late 19th century, shifting power away from the traditional academic system and official Salons
• This system involved close relationships between art dealers, who represented and supported artists, and art critics, who wrote about and promoted the artists' work
• The rise of the dealer-critic system had a significant impact on the careers of Impressionist and Post-Impressionist artists, providing them with new opportunities for exposure and financial support

Durand-Ruel's pioneering role

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• Paul Durand-Ruel was a prominent French art dealer who played a crucial role in the development of the dealer-critic system and the promotion of Impressionist art
• He was one of the first dealers to recognize the potential of Impressionist artists and began representing them in the 1870s, providing financial support and organizing exhibitions of their work
• Durand-Ruel's innovative strategies, such as solo exhibitions and international shows, helped to establish the reputation of Impressionist artists and create a market for their work

Dealers as tastemakers and promoters

• Art dealers like Durand-Ruel, Ambroise Vollard, and Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler became influential tastemakers and promoters of avant-garde art in the late 19th and early 20th centuries
• They played a key role in shaping public opinion and creating demand for the work of Impressionist and Post-Impressionist artists by organizing exhibitions, publishing catalogues, and cultivating relationships with collectors and critics
• Dealers also provided financial and moral support to artists, often purchasing their work outright or offering them stipends and studio space, allowing them to focus on their artistic development

Changing role of Salons

• The traditional system of official Salons, which had long dominated the French art world, began to lose its influence in the late 19th century as avant-garde artists sought new ways to exhibit and promote their work
• The Salons were often seen as conservative and resistant to change, with a bias towards academic and historical subjects over more experimental and modern styles
• The rise of the dealer-critic system and the emergence of independent exhibitions provided alternative venues for artists to show their work and reach new audiences

Declining influence of official Salons

• The Paris Salon, the most important official exhibition in France, faced increasing criticism and competition in the late 19th century as avant-garde artists and dealers challenged its authority
• Many Impressionist and Post-Impressionist artists had their work rejected by the Salon jury or were dissatisfied with the way their work was displayed, leading them to seek alternative exhibition opportunities
• The declining influence of the Salons was reflected in the growing number of artists who chose to exhibit independently or with dealer-sponsored shows, as well as the emergence of new exhibition societies and artist associations

Rise of independent exhibitions

• Independent exhibitions, organized by artists themselves or by sympathetic dealers and critics, became increasingly important in the late 19th century as a way for avant-garde artists to showcase their work and reach new audiences
• The Impressionists organized eight independent exhibitions between 1874 and 1886, which helped to establish their reputation and create a market for their work outside of the official Salon system
• Other notable independent exhibitions included the Salon des Refusés (1863), the Salon des Indépendants (founded 1884), and the Salon d'Automne (founded 1903), which provided important platforms for the exhibition and promotion of avant-garde art

New collectors and patrons

• The late 19th century saw the emergence of a new class of art collectors and patrons, including wealthy industrialists, entrepreneurs, and middle-class professionals, who played a significant role in supporting and promoting Impressionist and Post-Impressionist art
• These new collectors were often more open to experimental and avant-garde styles than traditional aristocratic patrons, and they helped to create a market for the work of artists who were initially rejected by the official Salons
• The support of these collectors and patrons was crucial for the financial stability and artistic development of many Impressionist and Post-Impressionist artists, who often struggled to make a living from their art alone

Wealthy industrialists and entrepreneurs

• Industrialists and entrepreneurs, who had made their fortunes in the rapidly modernizing economy of the late 19th century, became important collectors and patrons of Impressionist and Post-Impressionist art
• Notable examples include the French businessman Ernest Hoschedé, who was an early supporter of Claude Monet and other Impressionists, and the American collectors Leo and Gertrude Stein, who were important patrons of Pablo Picasso and other avant-garde artists in Paris
• These wealthy collectors often had a taste for modern and innovative art, and their support helped to legitimize and promote the work of avant-garde artists in the face of conservative opposition

Middle-class collectors

• The growing middle class of the late 19th century also played a significant role in the art market, as more people had disposable income to spend on art and decorative objects
• Middle-class collectors, such as the French bureaucrat Victor Chocquet and the American writer Louisine Havemeyer, were important early supporters of Impressionist and Post-Impressionist artists
• The affordability of prints, reproductions, and smaller-scale works by avant-garde artists made it possible for middle-class collectors to acquire and display modern art in their homes, helping to broaden the market and increase public exposure for these artists

Internationalization of art market

• The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw a significant internationalization of the art market, as Impressionist and Post-Impressionist art gained recognition and popularity beyond France
• This internationalization was driven by a combination of factors, including the growing mobility of artists and collectors, the increasing influence of dealers and critics, and the rise of new exhibition venues and marketing strategies
• The expansion of the art market beyond France helped to create new opportunities for avant-garde artists and contributed to the spread and influence of Impressionist and Post-Impressionist styles around the world

Impressionist exhibitions abroad

• Impressionist artists and their dealers organized a number of important exhibitions outside of France in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, helping to introduce their work to new audiences and markets
• Notable examples include the 1883 exhibition of French Impressionist art in London, organized by the dealer Paul Durand-Ruel, and the 1886 Impressionist exhibition in New York, which was the first major show of Impressionist art in the United States
• These exhibitions helped to generate international interest in Impressionist art and laid the groundwork for the growing popularity and influence of these artists in the early 20th century

Growth of American art market

• The United States emerged as an increasingly important market for Impressionist and Post-Impressionist art in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, as American collectors and museums began to acquire works by these artists
• The growth of the American art market was fueled by a combination of factors, including the increasing wealth and cultural sophistication of American collectors, the influence of expatriate artists and dealers, and the rise of new museums and exhibition venues
• Notable American collectors of Impressionist and Post-Impressionist art included Louisine and Henry Havemeyer, Bertha and Potter Palmer, and Albert Barnes, whose collections helped to establish the reputation and influence of these artists in the United States

Impact on artistic production

• The changes in the art market and patronage system in the late 19th century had a significant impact on the artistic production of Impressionist and Post-Impressionist artists
• The rise of the dealer-critic system and the decline of the official Salons gave artists greater freedom to experiment with new styles and subjects, without the constraints of academic conventions or official approval
• The support of new collectors and patrons, who were often more open to avant-garde and experimental art, also encouraged artists to push the boundaries of their artistic practice and explore new directions in their work

Increased artistic freedom

• The rise of the dealer-critic system and the decline of the official Salons gave Impressionist and Post-Impressionist artists greater freedom to pursue their own artistic vision and experiment with new styles and techniques
• Artists were no longer dependent on the approval of conservative Salon juries or the tastes of traditional aristocratic patrons, and could instead rely on the support of sympathetic dealers, critics, and collectors
• This increased artistic freedom allowed artists to explore new subjects, such as modern urban life, leisure activities, and the natural world, and to develop innovative approaches to color, brushwork, and composition

Experimentation with new styles

• The changes in the art market and patronage system also encouraged Impressionist and Post-Impressionist artists to experiment with new styles and push the boundaries of artistic convention
• Artists such as Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, and Paul Cézanne developed distinctive and innovative approaches to painting, characterized by loose, expressive brushwork, bold colors, and unconventional compositions
• The Post-Impressionists, including Vincent van Gogh, Paul Gauguin, and Georges Seurat, further expanded the possibilities of artistic expression, exploring new theories of color, form, and symbolism in their work

Relationship between artists and dealers

• The rise of the dealer-critic system in the late 19th century led to a new kind of relationship between artists and art dealers, characterized by close collaboration, financial support, and mutual promotion
• Dealers such as Paul Durand-Ruel, Ambroise Vollard, and Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler played a crucial role in the careers of many Impressionist and Post-Impressionist artists, providing them with financial stability, exhibition opportunities, and critical support
• In return, artists often gave dealers exclusive rights to their work and relied on them to handle the business and promotional aspects of their careers, allowing them to focus on their artistic development

Exclusive representation and contracts

• Many Impressionist and Post-Impressionist artists entered into exclusive contracts with dealers, giving them sole rights to sell and promote their work
• These contracts provided artists with a guaranteed income and a measure of financial security, as well as access to the dealer's network of collectors, critics, and exhibition venues
• In return, dealers often required artists to produce a certain number of works per year and to give them a percentage of the sales proceeds, creating a mutually beneficial business relationship

Financial and promotional support

• Dealers provided Impressionist and Post-Impressionist artists with a range of financial and promotional support, helping to advance their careers and create a market for their work
• This support included purchasing works directly from artists, providing them with monthly stipends or advances, and covering the costs of framing, shipping, and exhibition expenses
• Dealers also played a key role in promoting artists through exhibitions, catalogues, and critical writing, helping to establish their reputation and generate public interest in their work

Auctions and public sales

• Auctions and public sales played an important role in the art market of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, providing a venue for the sale and resale of Impressionist and Post-Impressionist art
• These sales were often organized by dealers or auction houses, and they provided a way for collectors to acquire works by established artists or to speculate on the potential value of emerging talents
• Auctions and public sales also helped to establish the market value of Impressionist and Post-Impressionist art, setting prices and creating a sense of competition and demand for these works

Hotel Drouot as a major venue

• The Hôtel Drouot in Paris was one of the most important auction venues for Impressionist and Post-Impressionist art in the late 19th and early 20th centuries
• The Hôtel Drouot hosted regular auctions of modern and contemporary art, including major sales of works by Monet, Renoir, Cézanne, and van Gogh
• These auctions attracted a wide range of collectors, dealers, and speculators, and they played a significant role in shaping the market and establishing the value of Impressionist and Post-Impressionist art

Establishing market value of artworks

• Auctions and public sales helped to establish the market value of Impressionist and Post-Impressionist artworks, setting prices and creating a sense of competition and demand for these works
• The prices achieved at auction were often seen as a measure of an artist's success and reputation, and they could have a significant impact on their career and financial prospects
• The publicity generated by high-profile auctions also helped to generate interest in Impressionist and Post-Impressionist art among collectors and the general public, contributing to the growing popularity and influence of these movements

Role of art critics

• Art critics played a crucial role in the reception and promotion of Impressionist and Post-Impressionist art in the late 19th and early 20th centuries
• Critics such as Jules-Antoine Castagnary, Félix Fénéon, and Roger Marx were among the first to recognize the significance of these new artistic movements, and their writing helped to shape public opinion and generate interest in the work of avant-garde artists
• Critics also played a key role in the dealer-critic system, collaborating with dealers to promote and legitimize the work of the artists they represented

Influencing public opinion

• Art critics had a significant influence on public opinion and taste in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and their writing could make or break the reputation of an artist or movement
• Positive reviews from respected critics could generate interest and demand for an artist's work, while negative reviews could discourage collectors and limit an artist's opportunities for exposure and success
• Critics also played a role in educating the public about new artistic developments and helping to create a context for understanding and appreciating avant-garde art

Championing avant-garde artists

• Many art critics in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were passionate advocates for avant-garde artists and movements, using their writing to champion the work of innovative and experimental painters
• Critics such as Émile Zola and Gustave Geffroy were early supporters of the Impressionists, defending their work against conservative attacks and helping to establish their reputation as serious and significant artists
• Other critics, such as Albert Aurier and G.-Albert Aurier, played a similar role in promoting the work of Post-Impressionist artists such as Vincent van Gogh and Paul Gauguin, helping to create a critical framework for understanding their innovative and often controversial approaches to art

Commercialization of art

• The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw a growing commercialization of art, as new technologies and marketing strategies made it possible to reproduce and distribute artworks on a mass scale
• This commercialization included the development of new forms of reproduction, such as lithography and photography, which allowed for the mass production of prints and other reproductions of famous artworks
• The commercialization of art also involved the use of advertising and branding strategies to promote individual artists and create a market for their work, blurring the lines between art and commerce

Mass production of prints and reproductions

• The development of new printing technologies in the late 19th century, such as lithography and photomechanical reproduction, made it possible to produce high-quality prints and reproductions of artworks on a mass scale
• These reproductions were often sold at a fraction of the cost of original artworks, making it possible for a wider range of collectors and consumers to acquire and display famous images in their homes
• The mass production of prints and reproductions also helped to popularize the work of Impressionist and Post-Impressionist artists, creating a broader market for their images and increasing their exposure to the general public

Advertising and branding of artists

• The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw the emergence of new forms of advertising and branding in the art world, as dealers and artists sought to create a market for their work and establish their reputation with the public
• This included the use of distinctive logos, typography, and other visual branding elements on exhibition posters, catalogues, and other promotional materials, as well as the development of artist biographies and other forms of publicity
• The advertising and branding of artists also involved the creation of a public persona or image for individual painters, often emphasizing their unique style, personality, or artistic vision as a way of distinguishing them from their competitors and creating a sense of brand loyalty among collectors and fans