6.1 The Eastern Question and Ottoman Decline

The Ottoman Empire's decline in the 19th century created a power vacuum in Eastern Europe and the Middle East. This "Eastern Question" became a major concern for European powers, who sought to protect their interests and expand their influence in the region.

The Crimean War (1853-1856) highlighted the complex dynamics of the Eastern Question. European nations balanced their desire to contain Russian expansion with their own ambitions, leading to shifting alliances and diplomatic maneuvering that would shape the continent's future.

Ottoman Empire's Decline

Territorial and Political Challenges

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• Ottoman Empire lost strategic regions through independence movements
  • Greek War of Independence (1821-1832) resulted in an autonomous Greek state
  • Serbia gained autonomy in 1817 and full independence by 1878
• Ineffective governance and corruption hindered modernization efforts
  • Tanzimat reforms (1839-1876) failed to address systemic issues
  • Bureaucratic resistance impeded implementation of necessary changes
• Nationalism among ethnic minorities increased internal tensions
  • Balkan regions (Bulgaria, Romania) experienced growing separatist movements
  • Arab provinces saw rising discontent with Ottoman rule

Economic and Military Weaknesses

• Outdated agricultural practices limited economic growth
  • Lack of mechanization in farming (ox-drawn plows, hand harvesting)
  • Inefficient land tenure systems (feudal-like arrangements)
• Limited industrialization compared to European powers
  • Few factories and industrial centers (textile mills in Bursa)
  • Reliance on imports for manufactured goods
• Financial instability led to the "Sick Man of Europe" label
  • Heavy reliance on foreign loans (from Britain, France)
  • Debt defaults and establishment of Ottoman Public Debt Administration (1881)
• Military defeats exposed technological backwardness
  • Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878) resulted in significant territorial losses
  • Outdated weaponry and tactics (muzzle-loading rifles, inadequate officer training)
• Capitulations system undermined economic sovereignty
  • European merchants received preferential treatment (lower tariffs, extraterritoriality)
  • Ottoman industries struggled to compete with foreign goods

European Interests in the Ottoman Empire

Strategic and Territorial Ambitions

• Russia sought warm-water ports and Balkan influence
  • Aimed to control Bosphorus and Dardanelles straits for naval access
  • Supported Slavic nationalist movements in the Balkans (Serbia, Bulgaria)
• Britain maintained Ottoman Empire as a buffer against Russia
  • Protected trade routes to India (overland routes, Suez Canal)
  • Occupied Cyprus (1878) and Egypt (1882) to secure Mediterranean positions
• Austria-Hungary expanded influence in the Balkans
  • Occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina (1878)
  • Competed with Russia for influence in Serbia and Montenegro

Economic and Cultural Interests

• France pursued influence in the Levant
  • Established strong presence in Lebanon and Syria
  • Competed with Britain for control over Egypt (Suez Canal)
• Prussia (later Germany) increased economic involvement
  • Invested in Ottoman infrastructure (Baghdad Railway)
  • Provided military advisors to modernize Ottoman army
• Italy sought footholds in North Africa and Mediterranean
  • Occupied Libya (1911-1912)
  • Controlled Dodecanese Islands (1912)

Eastern Question and European Diplomacy

Diplomatic Conflicts and Alliances

• Crimean War (1853-1856) demonstrated complex European rivalries
  • Britain and France allied with Ottoman Empire against Russia
  • Resulted in the Treaty of Paris (1856), temporarily limiting Russian expansion
• Congress of Berlin (1878) redrew borders in the Balkans
  • Reduced Russian gains from the Russo-Turkish War
  • Recognized independence of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro
• Formation of new alliances reshaped European politics
  • Three Emperors' League (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia) formed in 1873
  • Dual Alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary established in 1879

Power Vacuum and Imperial Competition

• Ottoman decline created opportunities for European expansion
  • Increased competition for influence in the Balkans and Middle East
  • Led to "scramble" for colonial possessions (North Africa, Arabia)
• Maintaining Ottoman territorial integrity became a diplomatic paradox
  • European powers officially supported Ottoman sovereignty
  • Simultaneously sought to exploit Ottoman weaknesses for their own gain
• Eastern Question exacerbated tensions leading to World War I
  • Balkan conflicts (Bosnian Crisis of 1908, Balkan Wars 1912-1913)
  • Competing interests in the Ottoman Empire contributed to alliance systems