6.3 Encoding and Retrieval in Short-term Memory

Short-term memory is our brain's temporary storage system. It holds onto information for a brief period, allowing us to process and manipulate it. This system is crucial for tasks like remembering a phone number long enough to dial it or following a conversation.

Encoding, maintenance, and retrieval are key processes in short-term memory. We encode information through attention and chunking, maintain it through rehearsal, and retrieve it using various strategies. Understanding these processes helps us grasp how we handle immediate information in our daily lives.

Encoding Processes in Short-term Memory

Encoding in short-term memory

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• Sensory input reception captures information through visual iconic memory lasting ~250ms, auditory echoic memory persisting ~3-4 seconds, and other sensory modalities (touch, smell)
• Attention allocation directs cognitive resources selectively to specific stimuli or divides focus among multiple tasks
• Chunking groups individual pieces of information into larger meaningful units enhances memory capacity (phone numbers)
• Pattern recognition matches incoming sensory data with stored knowledge facilitates quicker processing and encoding
• Elaborative rehearsal connects new information to existing knowledge deepens encoding (relating new vocabulary to familiar words)
• Maintenance rehearsal repeats information mentally or verbally to keep it active in short-term store

Maintenance and Retrieval in Short-term Memory

Attention and rehearsal for retention

• Attention focuses concentration on specific stimuli acts as a limited capacity resource necessary for information transfer to short-term memory
• Maintenance rehearsal involves subvocal repetition of information extends duration in short-term memory (repeating a phone number)
• Elaborative rehearsal processes information deeply enhances likelihood of transfer to long-term memory (creating a mnemonic device)
• Attentional refreshing briefly focuses on each item in memory maintains activation without verbal rehearsal
• Articulatory loop combines phonological storage and subvocal rehearsal process supports verbal information retention

Serial vs free recall

• Serial recall requires items to be recalled in original presentation order exhibits primacy and recency effects with position errors more common than item errors (remembering a sequence of numbers)
• Free recall allows items to be recalled in any order shows more pronounced recency effect and clustering of semantically related items (recalling items from a grocery list)
• Task differences: Serial recall relies more on temporal-positional information while free recall allows for more flexible retrieval strategies

Retrieval factors in short-term memory

• Decay theory posits information fades over time without active maintenance leads to rapid loss in short-term memory
• Interference occurs when:
  1. Proactive interference: prior learning interferes with new information
  2. Retroactive interference: new learning interferes with recall of older information
• Similarity effects: Phonological similarity impairs verbal information recall while visual similarity affects visual information recall (confusing similar-sounding words)
• Context effects: Environmental cues facilitate or impair retrieval (recalling information better in same room as learning)
• Retrieval cues provide partial information aiding recall of complete memories (first letter of a forgotten name)
• Output interference: Recall of initial items interferes with recall of subsequent items in a list
• Capacity limitations: Overload of information beyond short-term memory capacity $7 ± 2$ items impairs retrieval