6.1 Establishment of the reservation system

The reservation system marked a dark chapter in Native American history. The U.S. government forcibly relocated tribes from their ancestral lands to confined areas, disrupting traditional ways of life. This policy aimed to clear land for white settlers and control Native populations.

Reservations severely limited Native American freedoms and cultural practices. The system, overseen by the Bureau of Indian Affairs, eroded tribal sovereignty and imposed federal control. It set the stage for further assimilation efforts, including the notorious boarding schools.

Removal and Confinement Policies

Indian Appropriations Act and Removal Policies

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• Indian Appropriations Act of 1851 authorized creation of reservations in Oklahoma and other western territories
• Removal policies forcibly relocated Native American tribes from ancestral lands to designated reservations
• Infamous Trail of Tears resulted from Indian Removal Act of 1830, displacing Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Muscogee, and Seminole tribes
• Forced migrations caused significant loss of life due to disease, starvation, and exposure to harsh conditions
• Government justified removals as necessary for westward expansion and settlement by white Americans

Reservation System and Land Cessions

• Reservation boundaries established by federal government without tribal input or consent
• Land cessions involved tribes surrendering large portions of traditional territories in exchange for smaller reservation lands
• Treaties often used to formalize land cessions, though many were later broken or ignored by the U.S. government
• Dawes Act of 1887 further reduced tribal lands by dividing reservations into individual allotments
  • Surplus lands sold to non-Native settlers
  • Resulted in loss of millions of acres of Native American land

Confinement and Cultural Impact

• Confinement on reservations restricted Native American movement and traditional practices
• Hunting and gathering activities severely limited by confined spaces and depleted resources
• Traditional nomadic lifestyles disrupted, forcing tribes to adopt sedentary agricultural practices
• Overcrowding and poor living conditions on reservations led to health issues and increased poverty
• Cultural practices and languages suppressed through boarding schools and assimilation policies

Federal Oversight and Tribal Relations

Treaty System and Bureau of Indian Affairs

• Treaty system established formal agreements between U.S. government and Native American tribes
  • Defined land boundaries, resource rights, and obligations of both parties
  • Many treaties later violated or unilaterally changed by the U.S. government
• Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) created in 1824 to manage Native American affairs
  • Initially part of the War Department, later transferred to Department of the Interior
  • Responsible for implementing federal Indian policies and administering reservation services
• BIA agents often wielded significant power over tribal affairs, leading to corruption and mismanagement

Tribal Sovereignty and Federal Control

• Tribal sovereignty recognized in early treaties as inherent right of Native American nations
• Federal government gradually eroded tribal sovereignty through legislation and court decisions
  • Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831) defined tribes as "domestic dependent nations"
  • Major Crimes Act of 1885 extended federal jurisdiction over certain crimes on reservations
• Trust relationship established between federal government and tribes
  • Government assumed responsibility for managing tribal lands and resources
  • Resulted in increased federal control over tribal affairs and decision-making

Cultural Disruption and Assimilation Efforts

• Reservation system disrupted traditional social structures and governance systems
• Federal policies aimed at "civilizing" Native Americans through forced assimilation
• Boarding schools separated Native children from families and communities
  • Prohibited use of Native languages and cultural practices
  • Focused on teaching English, Christianity, and Euro-American customs
• Allotment policy undermined communal land ownership and traditional economic systems
• Loss of cultural knowledge and practices due to confinement and assimilation pressures
• Emergence of pan-Indian movements in response to shared experiences of cultural suppression