6.4 Female genital mutilation

Female genital mutilation (FGM) is a harmful practice violating human rights and reflecting gender inequality. It involves altering female genitals for non-medical reasons, with highest prevalence in parts of Africa, the Middle East, and Asia.

FGM has severe health consequences, including physical complications, psychological trauma, and reproductive issues. It's examined in Women's Studies as a form of gender-based violence, exploring its historical context and cultural significance.

Definition and prevalence

• Female genital mutilation (FGM) encompasses procedures altering or injuring female genital organs for non-medical reasons
• FGM violates human rights and reflects deep-rooted gender inequality, explored in Women's Studies as a form of gender-based violence
• Prevalence varies globally, with highest rates in parts of Africa, Middle East, and Asia

Types of FGM

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• Type I (clitoridectomy) involves partial or total removal of the clitoris and/or prepuce
• Type II (excision) removes the clitoris and labia minora, sometimes including labia majora
• Type III (infibulation) narrows the vaginal opening by creating a seal, often removing the clitoris
• Type IV includes all other harmful non-medical procedures to female genitalia (pricking, piercing, incising)

Global distribution

• Concentrated in 30 countries across Africa, Middle East, and Asia
• Highest prevalence in Somalia, Guinea, and Djibouti (over 90% of women affected)
• Practiced by some communities in Indonesia, Iraqi Kurdistan, and Yemen
• Increasing concern in Western countries due to migration (UK, US, Australia)

Cultural significance

• Often viewed as a rite of passage into womanhood
• Believed to ensure premarital virginity and marital fidelity
• Linked to ideas of female purity, modesty, and aesthetics
• Perpetuated by social pressure and fear of stigma for uncut women
• Mistakenly associated with religious requirements in some communities

Historical context

• FGM practices date back thousands of years, predating major religions
• Women's Studies examines how historical contexts shape gender-based practices and their persistence
• Understanding historical roots crucial for developing effective interventions

Origins and traditions

• Exact origins unclear, possibly ancient Egypt or Sudan
• Spread through trade routes and population movements
• Traditionally performed by elder women or traditional birth attendants
• Often part of elaborate coming-of-age ceremonies
• Linked to concepts of female sexuality control and patriarchal power structures

Colonial influence

• Colonial era brought increased awareness and early opposition to FGM
• Some colonial administrations attempted to ban or regulate the practice
  • Led to resistance and association of FGM with cultural identity
• Missionary efforts to end FGM sometimes backfired, strengthening local support
• Post-colonial nationalist movements sometimes embraced FGM as anti-Western stance

Modern perspectives

• Increased global attention since 1970s due to feminist and human rights movements
• Shift from viewing FGM as cultural practice to human rights violation
• Growing recognition of FGM as form of gender-based violence
• Tension between cultural relativism and universal human rights
• Emergence of community-led abandonment approaches

Health consequences

• FGM poses severe short-term and long-term health risks to women and girls
• Women's Studies analyzes how health consequences of FGM intersect with gender inequality
• Understanding health impacts crucial for advocacy and intervention efforts

Physical complications

• Immediate risks include severe pain, excessive bleeding, and infections
• Long-term issues include chronic pain, urinary problems, and keloid scarring
• Increased risk of obstetric complications (difficult childbirth, cesarean sections)
• Higher susceptibility to HIV and other sexually transmitted infections
• Potential for fistula formation, leading to incontinence and social stigma

Psychological impact

• Trauma from the procedure can lead to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
• Depression and anxiety common among FGM survivors
• Low self-esteem and body image issues frequently reported
• Sexual dysfunction and fear of intimacy often experienced
• Intergenerational trauma affecting families and communities

Reproductive health issues

• Increased risk of infertility due to infections and scarring
• Menstrual problems, including painful and irregular periods
• Difficulties with gynecological examinations and cervical cancer screening
• Complications during pregnancy and childbirth (obstructed labor, excessive bleeding)
• Need for deinfibulation (surgical opening) for women with Type III FGM

Human rights implications

• FGM violates several fundamental human rights, including right to health and bodily integrity
• Women's Studies examines FGM within broader context of women's rights and gender equality
• Debate over cultural practices vs universal human rights central to FGM discourse

International laws

• UN Convention on the Rights of the Child prohibits harmful traditional practices
• African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights (Maputo Protocol) explicitly bans FGM
• Many countries have enacted specific laws criminalizing FGM
  • Challenges in enforcement and prosecution remain
• Extraterritorial laws in some countries prohibit taking girls abroad for FGM

Cultural relativism vs universalism

• Cultural relativists argue FGM should be understood within its cultural context
• Universalists assert human rights transcend cultural boundaries
• Debate over whether Western opposition to FGM constitutes cultural imperialism
• Growing consensus that FGM violates universal rights to health and bodily integrity
• Challenge of respecting cultural diversity while protecting individual rights

Ethical considerations

• Autonomy and informed consent key ethical issues, especially for minors
• Debate over medicalization of FGM and harm reduction approaches
• Ethical responsibilities of healthcare providers in FGM-practicing communities
• Balancing respect for parental rights with protection of children
• Ethical implications of criminalization and its impact on affected communities