6.2 Sea level rise and coastal impacts

Sea level rise poses a significant threat to Indigenous communities along the North American West coast. Rising seas endanger traditional lands, food sources, and cultural practices, amplifying existing environmental and social challenges for these communities.

Understanding the causes and impacts of sea level rise is crucial for developing effective adaptation strategies. From thermal expansion of oceans to melting glaciers, the effects on coastal erosion, saltwater intrusion, and flooding require innovative responses to preserve Indigenous ways of life.

Causes of sea level rise

• Sea level rise significantly impacts Indigenous communities along the North American West coast, threatening traditional lands and ways of life
• Understanding the causes of sea level rise is crucial for developing effective adaptation strategies for Indigenous peoples in the region
• Climate change disproportionately affects Indigenous communities, amplifying existing environmental and social challenges

Thermal expansion of oceans

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• Oceans absorb over 90% of excess heat from greenhouse gas emissions
• Water molecules expand as they warm, increasing ocean volume
• Rate of thermal expansion varies with water temperature and depth
• Contributes approximately 30-55% of global sea level rise
• Thermal expansion affects deeper ocean layers over longer timescales (centuries to millennia)

Melting glaciers and ice sheets

• Glaciers and ice sheets store large volumes of freshwater on land
• Rising global temperatures cause accelerated melting and runoff into oceans
• Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets contribute significantly to sea level rise
• Mountain glaciers (Rockies, Cascades) also play a role in regional sea level changes
• Melting ice sheets can cause localized sea level drop due to reduced gravitational pull

Human-induced climate change

• Burning of fossil fuels releases greenhouse gases, trapping heat in the atmosphere
• Deforestation reduces carbon sinks, exacerbating the greenhouse effect
• Industrial processes and agriculture contribute to increased atmospheric CO2 levels
• Feedback loops (albedo effect, permafrost thaw) amplify warming trends
• Anthropogenic climate change accelerates natural sea level rise processes

Coastal impacts of rising seas

• Rising sea levels pose significant threats to Indigenous communities along the North American West coast
• Understanding these impacts is crucial for developing effective adaptation strategies and preserving cultural heritage
• Coastal changes affect traditional food sources, sacred sites, and community infrastructure

Erosion and shoreline changes

• Increased wave action and storm intensity accelerate coastal erosion
• Shorelines retreat inland, threatening coastal habitats and infrastructure
• Bluff and cliff erosion endangers cultural sites and traditional gathering areas
• Sediment transport patterns change, altering beach profiles and nearshore ecosystems
• Loss of natural barriers (sand dunes, wetlands) increases vulnerability to future erosion

Saltwater intrusion

• Rising sea levels push saltwater further inland through surface waters and aquifers
• Contamination of freshwater sources impacts drinking water supplies
• Agricultural lands become less productive due to increased soil salinity
• Coastal ecosystems shift as salt-tolerant species replace freshwater-dependent ones
• Traditional medicinal plants and culturally significant species may be lost due to changing salinity

Flooding and storm surge

• Higher sea levels provide a higher base for storm surges to build upon
• Low-lying coastal areas experience more frequent and severe flooding events
• Infrastructure damage increases, affecting homes, roads, and community facilities
• Traditional burial grounds and sacred sites face inundation risks
• Emergency evacuations become more common, disrupting community life and cultural practices

Indigenous communities at risk

Pacific Northwest coastal tribes

• Tribes like the Quinault, Quileute, and Hoh face immediate threats from rising seas
• Traditional fishing grounds and shellfish harvesting areas are impacted by changing ocean conditions
• Coastal villages require relocation to higher ground, straining tribal resources
• Sacred sites and archaeological resources along the coast are at risk of erosion and inundation
• Treaty rights and access to usual and accustomed fishing areas are challenged by changing coastlines

Alaska Native villages

• Coastal erosion threatens villages like Shishmaref, Kivalina, and Newtok
• Thawing permafrost destabilizes buildings and infrastructure
• Traditional hunting and fishing practices are disrupted by changing sea ice patterns
• Loss of sea ice increases vulnerability to storm surges and coastal flooding
• Relocation efforts face significant logistical, financial, and cultural challenges

California coastal tribes

• Tribes such as the Yurok, Tolowa Dee-ni', and Wiyot face threats to ancestral lands
• Rising seas endanger sacred sites and culturally significant coastal prairies
• Traditional gathering areas for seaweed, shellfish, and medicinal plants are impacted
• Salmon runs, crucial for cultural and subsistence purposes, are affected by changing river mouths and estuaries
• Coastal lagoons and wetlands, important for traditional resource management, face inundation and habitat shifts

Traditional ecological knowledge

Indigenous observations of change

• Generational knowledge provides long-term perspective on coastal changes
• Observations of shifting species distributions and phenology inform adaptation strategies
• Traditional calendars based on natural cycles are disrupted by climate change impacts
• Elders' stories and place names document historical coastline positions and changes
• Indigenous languages contain unique terms and concepts related to environmental observations

Adaptation strategies

• Traditional resource management practices inform modern coastal protection efforts
• Seasonal movement patterns provide models for managed retreat strategies
• Indigenous fire management techniques help maintain coastal prairie habitats
• Traditional food preservation methods aid in adapting to changing resource availability
• Intergenerational knowledge transfer ensures continuity of adaptive practices

Cultural significance of coastlines

• Coastal areas often hold creation stories and spiritual significance for tribes
• Intertidal zones provide important food sources and materials for traditional crafts
• Coastal landforms serve as navigation markers and boundary indicators
• Ocean resources play central roles in potlatch and other cultural ceremonies
• Connection to ancestral coastal lands forms a core part of Indigenous identity

Economic consequences

Fishing and aquaculture impacts

• Changes in ocean temperature and chemistry affect fish populations and migration patterns
• Traditional fishing grounds may become less productive or shift locations
• Shellfish aquaculture faces challenges from ocean acidification and harmful algal blooms
• Tribal fishing quotas and regulations may need adjustment to reflect changing ecosystems
• Economic diversification becomes necessary for some coastal Indigenous communities

Tourism and recreation effects

• Cultural tourism opportunities may be lost as coastal sites are damaged or submerged
• Traditional canoe journeys and water-based cultural events face logistical challenges
• Eco-tourism ventures (whale watching, kayaking) adapt to changing coastal conditions
• Beach erosion and loss impact recreational opportunities for tribal members and visitors
• Shifting ecosystems create new opportunities for wildlife viewing and nature-based tourism

Infrastructure damage costs

• Relocation of entire communities requires significant financial resources
• Damage to roads, bridges, and utilities disrupts economic activities and daily life
• Coastal protection measures (seawalls, levees) incur high construction and maintenance costs
• Traditional infrastructure (fish traps, clam gardens) may require redesign or relocation
• Economic losses from damaged cultural sites and artifacts are often incalculable

Adaptation and mitigation efforts

Coastal protection measures

• Living shorelines incorporate native vegetation to reduce erosion and enhance habitats
• Traditional techniques like clam gardens inform modern coastal restoration projects
• Green infrastructure (rain gardens, bioswales) helps manage increased stormwater runoff
• Hybrid approaches combine engineered structures with natural elements for coastal defense
• Ecosystem-based adaptation strategies prioritize the restoration of coastal wetlands and mangroves

Managed retreat strategies

• Phased relocation plans allow for gradual movement of communities to higher ground
• Land acquisition programs secure inland areas for future community development
• Buyout programs compensate property owners in high-risk coastal zones
• Zoning changes restrict new development in vulnerable coastal areas
• Cultural resource documentation and relocation preserve heritage in the face of coastal loss

Indigenous-led conservation initiatives

• Tribal marine protected areas safeguard important coastal and marine ecosystems
• Indigenous guardianship programs monitor and protect sensitive coastal habitats
• Community-based monitoring networks track environmental changes and inform management decisions
• Restoration of traditional food systems enhances coastal resilience and food sovereignty
• Intergenerational education programs ensure continuity of traditional coastal knowledge

Policy and governance

Tribal sovereignty issues

• Sea level rise challenges tribal jurisdiction over submerged lands and resources
• Negotiations with federal and state governments address changing reservation boundaries
• Tribal water rights face complexities as coastlines shift and saltwater intrusion occurs
• Environmental regulations on tribal lands balance sovereignty with adaptation needs
• Government-to-government consultation processes inform climate adaptation policies

Federal and state responses

• Disaster declaration processes adapt to address slow-onset climate impacts like sea level rise
• Funding mechanisms for tribal climate adaptation are developed and implemented
• Interagency task forces coordinate responses to coastal climate threats
• State-level coastal zone management plans incorporate tribal concerns and knowledge
• Federal agencies (BIA, EPA, NOAA) provide technical assistance for tribal adaptation efforts

International climate agreements

• Paris Agreement recognizes the rights and knowledge of Indigenous peoples
• United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples informs climate action
• Indigenous representatives participate in COP meetings and working groups
• International cooperation addresses transboundary issues (salmon migration, ocean acidification)
• Global climate finance mechanisms support Indigenous-led adaptation projects

Future projections

Sea level rise scenarios

• IPCC projections range from 0.3-2.5 meters of global sea level rise by 2100
• Regional variations in sea level rise due to local factors (land subsidence, ocean currents)
• Worst-case scenarios consider potential rapid ice sheet collapse in Antarctica
• Probabilistic models inform risk assessments for coastal planning
• Long-term projections extend beyond 2100, considering multi-century impacts

Vulnerable coastal areas

• Low-lying river deltas face compound risks from sea level rise and increased river flooding
• Barrier islands experience accelerated erosion and potential breaching
• Coastal lagoons and estuaries risk conversion to open water as sea levels rise
• Arctic coastlines face unique challenges from reduced sea ice and thawing permafrost
• Urban coastal areas contend with infrastructure vulnerabilities and population density

Long-term ecological changes

• Coastal squeeze threatens intertidal habitats as they are caught between rising seas and fixed infrastructure
• Marine species ranges shift poleward, altering ecosystem dynamics and fisheries
• Increased ocean stratification impacts nutrient cycling and primary productivity
• Ocean acidification and deoxygenation compound stressors on marine ecosystems
• Tipping points in coastal ecosystems may lead to rapid and irreversible changes

Cultural and spiritual impacts

Loss of sacred sites

• Coastal burial grounds face erosion and inundation risks
• Sacred landmarks used for navigation and storytelling disappear or become inaccessible
• Ceremonial sites tied to specific coastal features are threatened
• Archaeological resources reveal cultural histories are lost to rising seas
• Spiritual connections to place are challenged as familiar landscapes change

Disruption of traditional practices

• Seasonal harvest cycles are altered by changing coastal ecosystems
• Traditional fishing and gathering locations become inaccessible or unproductive
• Ceremonial use of coastal plants and animals is impacted by habitat shifts
• Intergenerational teaching of coastal traditions is complicated by rapid environmental change
• Cultural identities tied to specific coastal environments face existential challenges

Forced relocation challenges

• Community cohesion is strained by the need to relocate away from ancestral lands
• Cultural continuity is threatened when communities are dispersed
• Traditional governance structures may be disrupted in new settlement locations
• Psychological and emotional impacts of displacement affect community well-being
• Legal and political challenges arise in securing and developing new tribal lands

Resilience and community response

Indigenous climate action plans

• Tribes develop comprehensive strategies addressing both mitigation and adaptation
• Traditional knowledge is integrated with scientific data in planning processes
• Community-wide engagement ensures broad participation in decision-making
• Holistic approaches consider cultural, economic, and environmental factors
• Adaptive management principles allow for flexibility as conditions change

Inter-tribal collaborations

• Regional alliances form to address shared coastal challenges
• Knowledge exchange networks facilitate sharing of best practices and lessons learned
• Joint advocacy efforts strengthen tribal voices in policy discussions
• Collaborative research projects leverage resources and expertise across communities
• Cultural revitalization initiatives support collective resilience in the face of change

Partnerships with researchers

• Co-production of knowledge bridges Indigenous and Western scientific approaches
• Community-based participatory research ensures relevance and cultural appropriateness
• Tribal colleges and universities play key roles in building local research capacity
• Indigenous data sovereignty principles guide research partnerships and data management
• Collaborative field studies document coastal changes and inform adaptation strategies