7.2 Using Boolean Operators and Search Connectors Effectively

Boolean operators and search connectors are essential tools for effective legal research. They allow you to combine terms, narrow or broaden results, and find specific phrases. Mastering these techniques helps you quickly locate relevant cases, statutes, and other legal materials.

Using these tools together lets you create targeted searches that zero in on exactly what you need. By combining operators like AND, OR, and NOT with connectors like /s and +3, you can craft precise queries that save time and improve research quality.

Boolean Operators in Legal Research

Functions and Usage

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• Boolean operators (AND, OR, NOT) are used in legal research databases to combine search terms and phrases to broaden or narrow search results
• The AND operator requires both terms to be present in the search results, narrowing the number of results (bankruptcy AND fraud)
• The OR operator allows either term to be present in the search results, broadening the number of results (copyright OR trademark)
• The NOT operator excludes a term from the search results, narrowing the number of results (divorce NOT child)
• Boolean operators must be capitalized to be recognized by the search engine

Grouping and Controlling Search Order

• Parentheses can be used to group Boolean operators and control the order in which the search is executed
  • Example: (negligence OR liability) AND (premises OR property)
  • This search finds results containing either "negligence" or "liability" AND either "premises" or "property"
  • Without parentheses, the search would be executed as: negligence OR (liability AND premises) OR property
• Grouping related terms or phrases with parentheses ensures the intended logic is applied
• Parentheses can also be used to combine multiple Boolean operators in a single search query

Search Connectors for Precision

Proximity Connectors

• Search connectors are symbols used in proximity searching to specify the closeness or relationship between search terms
• The /s connector requires the terms to appear in the same sentence (breach /s contract)
• The /p connector requires the terms to appear in the same paragraph (tort /p reform)
• Proximity connectors help find results where the search terms have a specific relationship or context

Within Connectors

• The +s connector requires the terms to appear within a specified number of words of each other (disability +3 discrimination)
• The +p connector requires the terms to appear within a specified number of paragraphs of each other (patent +2 infringement)
• Within connectors provide more flexibility than /s and /p while still specifying term proximity
• The number following the + indicates the maximum word or paragraph distance allowed between terms

Exact Phrase Searching

• Quotation marks can be used for exact phrase searching to find results containing a specific phrase
• Example: "Americans with Disabilities Act" will find the exact phrase, rather than the individual words
• Phrase searching is useful for finding specific statutory language, case names, or other precise wording

Targeted Search Queries

Combining Boolean Operators and Search Connectors

• Boolean operators and search connectors can be used together in the same search query to precisely target relevant results
• Use AND to require the presence of multiple terms or phrases (connected by search connectors) in the results
  • Example: (breach /s contract) AND (specific +2 performance)
• Use OR to find synonyms or alternative phrases for a concept (each phrase can use search connectors)
  • Example: (copyright OR "intellectual property") AND (infring* OR violat*)
• Use NOT to exclude terms or phrases (connected by search connectors) that are irrelevant to the research topic
  • Example: (defamation OR libel OR slander) NOT (product /s liability)

Controlling Search Order with Parentheses

• Use parentheses to control the order of operations when combining multiple Boolean operators and search connectors
• Example: ((dog OR canine) AND bite) NOT (police OR k9)
  • This search finds results about dog bites, excluding those related to police or k9 units
  • Without parentheses, the NOT would only apply to the term immediately preceding it
• Parentheses ensure the intended search logic is executed, especially with complex queries

Evaluating Search Strategies

Iterative Refinement

• Effective searching requires iteration and refinement of search queries based on the results obtained
• If a search yields too few results, consider broadening by:
  • Using OR to include synonyms or alternative phrases (car OR automobile OR vehicle)
  • Removing AND operators or search connectors to reduce restrictions on term relationships
• If a search yields too many results, consider narrowing by:
  • Adding AND operators to require additional terms or phrases
  • Using NOT to exclude irrelevant terms or concepts
  • Tightening search connectors (changing +10 to +5, or /p to /s)

Relevance Analysis

• Evaluate the relevance of the top results to determine if the search terms are capturing the desired concepts
• Look for key terms or phrases in relevant results that can be incorporated into subsequent searches
  • If a relevant result contains "toxic tort," consider adding that phrase to the search
• Analyze irrelevant results to identify terms or phrases to exclude using NOT
• Refine searches based on the language and terminology used in on-point results

Database Selection

• Consider the authority and currency of the databases being searched and whether additional databases should be utilized
• Primary law databases (cases, statutes, regulations) may be more appropriate for some research tasks than secondary sources
• Topical databases or practice area-specific resources may provide more targeted results for certain issues
• Evaluate whether the issue requires searching non-legal databases (news, business, scientific literature)
• Comprehensive research may require searching across multiple database types to find all relevant authorities