7.2 Third gender categories and roles in ancient civilizations

Ancient civilizations recognized diverse third gender categories beyond male and female. These identities often held spiritual significance and unique social roles, challenging our modern binary understanding of gender.

From Mesopotamian priests to Native American two-spirits, third gender individuals played important religious and cultural roles. Their acceptance varied across societies, offering insights into the complex history of gender diversity.

Third Gender Categories in Ancient Civilizations

Defining Third Gender Categories

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• Third gender refers to a gender category or identity distinct from the binary male/female categories
• Ancient civilizations recognized a variety of third gender identities that encompassed individuals not fully conforming to male or female roles
• Third gender categories were often associated with spiritual or religious significance in ancient cultures

Examples of Third Gender Categories

• In ancient Mesopotamia, the assinnu, kurgarrū, and kulu'u were third gender or transgender priests who took on feminine names, clothing, and traits
  • They served in temples and participated in religious rituals
• In ancient Egypt, the sekhet were a third gender category of men who adopted feminine dress, names, and roles
  • They were connected with the goddess Hathor
• Indian Vedic texts describe the tritiya-prakriti, a "third nature" category encompassing individuals not fully male or female, such as the hijras
  • Hijras dressed as women and served ritual and entertainment functions
• Native American cultures recognized "two-spirit" people who combined male and female characteristics
  • Two-spirit individuals often held spiritual or shamanic roles in their communities

Social Roles of Third Gender Individuals

Spiritual and Religious Roles

• Third gender individuals in ancient civilizations frequently held spiritual or religious roles, such as priests, shamans, or temple functionaries
  • Their gender identity was seen as a sign of divine connection
• In Mesopotamia, the assinnu, kurgarrū, and kulu'u performed in religious ceremonies, dances, and rituals
  • They were associated with the worship of Inanna/Ishtar
• Indian hijras traditionally performed blessings at weddings and births due to their perceived spiritual power
• Two-spirit Native Americans often served as healers, mediators, and conveyers of oral traditions and sacred teachings in their tribes

Entertainment and Performance Roles

• Some third gender individuals worked in entertainment, such as music, dance, and theater
  • In ancient Rome, some male cross-dressing performers were popular entertainers
• Indian hijras engaged in entertainment like music and dance in addition to their ritual roles
• The specific entertainment roles of third gender individuals varied between cultures

Social Status and Marginalization

• The specific social and economic roles of third gender people varied between cultures
  • They were often marginalized or held low status in society despite any spiritual prestige
• Third gender individuals frequently faced restrictions or stigma even when accepted for religious reasons
  • For example, the Mesopotamian assinnu were forbidden from having children

Acceptance of Third Gender Individuals: Ancient Cultures vs Modern Societies

Range of Attitudes in Ancient Cultures

• Ancient attitudes toward third gender people ranged from reverence and acceptance to stigma and marginalization
  • Reactions were complex and shifted over time
• In Mesopotamia, the third gender priests were respected for their religious roles but also faced some stigma and restrictions
• Ancient Egyptian society accepted the sekhet priests, but there is little record of the acceptance of transgender or third gender identity in the general population
• Early Vedic texts speak positively of the tritiya-prakriti, but Indian attitudes shifted over time to become more negative
  • The hijra faced discrimination despite their ritual roles

Impact of Colonization and Western Influence

• Many Native American tribes revered two-spirit individuals and considered them lucky or blessed
  • European colonization led to the suppression of two-spirit identities and roles
• Western colonial influence often led to the marginalization or criminalization of indigenous third gender identities and practices
  • This disrupted traditional social structures and roles

Contextual Acceptance in Ancient Greece and Rome

• In ancient Greece and Rome, cross-dressing and gender non-conformity were accepted in some religious cults and festivals but were not openly tolerated in daily life
• Same-sex relations and cross-dressing were generally more accepted in ancient cultures if they occurred within specific social scripts
  • For example, relations between an older and younger man or cross-dressing in a religious context were more tolerated
• Open transgender or non-binary identity remained stigmatized in Greco-Roman society despite some ritual cross-dressing practices