7.4 Indian Relocation Act

The Indian Relocation Act of 1956 marked a significant shift in federal Indian policy. It aimed to move Native Americans from reservations to urban areas, promising better economic opportunities. This program was part of the broader termination policy era, seeking to integrate Native Americans into mainstream society.

The act had profound impacts on tribal communities and individual lives. It led to significant urban migration, altering reservation demographics and creating new urban Indian communities. While some found opportunities, many faced cultural challenges and discrimination in cities.

Background and context

• Post-World War II era marked significant shifts in federal Indian policy, moving away from earlier approaches
• Broader societal changes and economic pressures influenced government attitudes towards Native American communities
• Context of this period crucial for understanding the motivations behind the Indian Relocation Act

Post-World War II era

Top images from around the web for Post-World War II era

• 

  Urbanization and Its Challenges | United States History II: Since 1865 View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Civil Rights: Native Americans, Alaskans, and Hawaiians–how has the fight expanded? | United ... View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  The State of Native America at the End of the Twentieth Century View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Urbanization and Its Challenges | United States History II: Since 1865 View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Civil Rights: Native Americans, Alaskans, and Hawaiians–how has the fight expanded? | United ... View original

  Is this image relevant?

1 of 3

Top images from around the web for Post-World War II era

• 

  Urbanization and Its Challenges | United States History II: Since 1865 View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Civil Rights: Native Americans, Alaskans, and Hawaiians–how has the fight expanded? | United ... View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  The State of Native America at the End of the Twentieth Century View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Urbanization and Its Challenges | United States History II: Since 1865 View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Civil Rights: Native Americans, Alaskans, and Hawaiians–how has the fight expanded? | United ... View original

  Is this image relevant?

1 of 3

• Characterized by rapid urbanization and industrialization across the United States
• Native American veterans returned from war, exposed to life outside reservations
• Federal government sought to reduce financial obligations to tribes and reservations

Termination policy origins

• Emerged as part of broader assimilationist agenda in 1940s and 1950s
• Aimed to end federal recognition and support for Native American tribes
• House Concurrent Resolution 108 (1953) formally announced termination policy
• Linked to ideas of "freeing" Native Americans from federal oversight and control

Urban migration trends

• Increasing numbers of Native Americans moving to cities independently before official relocation programs
• Driven by lack of economic opportunities on reservations
• World War II defense industry jobs attracted many to urban areas
• Voluntary urban migration set stage for more formalized relocation efforts

Indian Relocation Act overview

• Officially known as Public Law 959 or the Adult Vocational Training Program
• Enacted in 1956 as part of the broader termination policy era
• Designed to encourage Native Americans to leave reservations and integrate into urban areas

Key provisions

• Established voluntary relocation program for Native Americans
• Provided financial assistance for moving expenses and initial housing costs
• Offered job training and placement services in urban areas
• Restricted participants from returning to reservations within specified timeframe

Target populations

• Focused primarily on young, able-bodied Native Americans of working age
• Emphasized relocation of entire families rather than individuals
• Targeted tribes facing economic hardship or those slated for termination
• Excluded elderly, disabled, or those deemed unlikely to succeed in urban environments

Implementation timeline

• Began as pilot programs in select cities in early 1950s
• Officially enacted in 1956 with passage of Indian Relocation Act
• Expanded to multiple urban centers throughout late 1950s and 1960s
• Continued in various forms until 1970s, when policy shifted towards self-determination

Goals and objectives

• Aimed to address perceived "Indian problem" through integration into mainstream society
• Sought to reduce federal government's financial responsibilities towards Native American tribes
• Attempted to improve economic conditions for Native Americans through urban employment

Assimilation efforts

• Encouraged adoption of mainstream American cultural practices and values
• Promoted English language use and discouraged traditional Native languages
• Emphasized participation in urban workforce and consumer culture
• Sought to break down tribal affiliations and collective identities

Economic integration

• Aimed to incorporate Native Americans into urban labor markets
• Provided vocational training in industries with high demand for workers
• Encouraged financial independence from federal support systems
• Promoted homeownership and participation in urban housing markets

Cultural dissolution concerns

• Policy makers viewed traditional Native cultures as obstacles to progress
• Sought to weaken ties to tribal lands and communal ways of life
• Encouraged individual achievement over collective tribal identities
• Raised fears among Native communities about loss of cultural heritage and traditions

Bureau of Indian Affairs role

• Served as primary federal agency responsible for implementing Indian Relocation Act
• Coordinated efforts between reservation-based offices and urban relocation centers
• Faced criticism for inadequate support and follow-up services for relocated individuals

Relocation programs

• Established field offices in major urban destinations to assist relocatees
• Provided orientation sessions about urban life and expectations
• Arranged transportation from reservations to cities
• Offered limited financial assistance for initial relocation expenses (moving costs, first month's rent)

Job placement services

• Conducted skills assessments and aptitude tests for program participants
• Offered vocational training programs in various trades and industries
• Developed relationships with urban employers to facilitate job placements
• Provided job search assistance and interview preparation

Housing assistance

• Helped relocatees find affordable housing in urban areas
• Offered temporary housing in some cases while permanent accommodations were secured
• Provided information on rental agreements and homeownership opportunities
• Faced challenges in finding adequate housing due to discrimination and limited options

Urban destinations

• Program focused on relocating Native Americans to major metropolitan areas across the United States
• Cities chosen based on perceived economic opportunities and existing infrastructure to support relocatees

Major relocation cities

• Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Oakland in California
• Chicago, Illinois became a significant hub for relocated Native Americans
• Denver, Colorado served as a relocation center for many Plains tribes
• Other destinations included Seattle, Salt Lake City, and Minneapolis-St. Paul

Employment opportunities

• Focused on industries with high demand for labor (manufacturing, construction, service sector)
• Many relocatees found work in factories, shipyards, and defense-related industries
• Some Native Americans pursued careers in healthcare, education, and skilled trades
• Urban employment often offered higher wages compared to reservation economies

Cultural challenges

• Relocatees faced significant adjustments to urban lifestyle and social norms
• Language barriers posed difficulties for those with limited English proficiency
• Discrimination in housing, employment, and social settings was common
• Lack of access to traditional cultural practices and ceremonies created sense of isolation

Impact on tribal communities

• Relocation program had profound and lasting effects on Native American tribes and reservations
• Altered demographic composition and social dynamics of many tribal communities
• Created tensions between those who left and those who remained on reservations

Population shifts

• Significant numbers of working-age adults left reservations for urban areas
• Changed age distribution on reservations, with higher proportions of elderly and young children
• Some tribes experienced substantial population declines due to relocation
• Created new urban Indian communities in major cities across the United States

Reservation depopulation

• Many reservations lost skilled workers and potential community leaders
• Reduced tribal populations impacted federal funding allocations for reservation programs
• Some smaller tribes faced threats of termination due to declining populations
• Created challenges for maintaining tribal governance and community cohesion

Traditional lifestyle disruption

• Relocation weakened intergenerational transmission of cultural knowledge and practices
• Reduced number of fluent speakers of Native languages on some reservations
• Impacted traditional economic activities (farming, ranching, crafts) due to loss of labor force
• Altered family structures and kinship networks as extended families were separated

Urban Indian experiences

• Relocation program participants faced numerous challenges adapting to urban environments
• Many experienced culture shock, discrimination, and economic hardships
• Some found new opportunities and established thriving urban Indian communities

Adjustment difficulties

• Many relocatees struggled with cost of living in urban areas
• Isolation from family and tribal support networks led to mental health challenges
• Navigating unfamiliar urban systems (public transportation, healthcare, education) proved challenging
• Some faced unemployment or underemployment due to lack of skills or discrimination

Community formation

• Urban Indians formed new social networks and support systems in cities
• Established urban Indian centers to provide cultural activities and social services
• Created pan-Indian identities that bridged tribal differences in urban settings
• Developed new forms of Native American activism and political engagement

Cultural identity preservation

• Many urban Indians maintained connections to their tribal heritage despite physical distance
• Organized powwows and other cultural events in urban areas
• Established urban Indian health clinics and education programs
• Some urban Indians made efforts to return to reservations periodically for ceremonies and family events

Criticism and opposition

• Indian Relocation Act faced significant criticism from Native American leaders and advocates
• Many viewed the program as continuation of harmful assimilationist policies
• Opposition grew as negative impacts on tribal communities became apparent

Tribal resistance

• Some tribal councils passed resolutions opposing relocation programs
• Leaders argued that relocation threatened tribal sovereignty and cultural continuity
• Encouraged tribal members to remain on reservations and pursue economic development locally
• Some tribes developed their own job training and economic programs as alternatives to relocation

Cultural preservation arguments

• Critics argued that relocation threatened Native languages, traditions, and spiritual practices
• Emphasized importance of maintaining connection to ancestral lands and sacred sites
• Raised concerns about loss of traditional ecological knowledge and land stewardship practices
• Highlighted value of extended family networks and communal ways of life threatened by relocation

Broken promises allegations

• Many relocatees felt misled by promises of better opportunities in cities
• Inadequate support services and follow-up from BIA left many struggling in urban environments
• Some argued that relocation was coercive, with pressure applied to participate in the program
• Critics pointed to government's failure to fulfill treaty obligations and support reservation development

Long-term consequences

• Indian Relocation Act had lasting impacts on Native American communities and individuals
• Shaped modern demographics of Native American populations in the United States
• Influenced subsequent federal Indian policies and tribal responses

Urban Indian demographics

• By 1980, majority of Native Americans lived in urban areas rather than on reservations
• Created large, diverse urban Indian communities in major cities across the country
• Led to formation of multi-tribal and pan-Indian identities in urban settings
• Contributed to increased intermarriage rates between Native Americans and other ethnic groups

Reservation economic effects

• Many reservations experienced long-term economic challenges due to population loss
• Some tribes struggled to maintain essential services with reduced federal funding
• Created "brain drain" effect as educated and skilled tribal members often remained in cities
• Led some tribes to pursue economic development strategies (casinos, tourism) to create jobs

Cultural revitalization movements

• Relocation experience sparked renewed interest in cultural preservation and revitalization
• Urban Indians often became leaders in efforts to reclaim and celebrate Native identities
• Led to establishment of Native American studies programs in universities
• Inspired artistic and literary movements exploring themes of identity and cultural resilience

Legacy and modern implications

• Effects of Indian Relocation Act continue to shape Native American experiences today
• Policy shifts in recent decades have attempted to address some negative consequences
• Urban Indian communities remain significant part of contemporary Native American life

Policy reversal efforts

• Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act (1975) marked shift away from termination policies
• Federal government increased support for tribal sovereignty and self-governance
• Some tribes have implemented programs to encourage return migration to reservations
• Increased focus on economic development and capacity building within tribal communities

Urban Indian organizations

• National Urban Indian Family Coalition advocates for urban Native American needs
• Urban Indian health organizations provide culturally appropriate healthcare services
• Native American youth programs in cities aim to connect young people with their heritage
• Urban powwows and cultural events continue to be important for community cohesion

Contemporary relocation issues

• Some Native Americans continue to move between reservations and urban areas for education or employment
• Challenges persist in providing adequate services to geographically dispersed urban Indian populations
• Debates ongoing about federal responsibilities to urban Indians vs. reservation-based tribal members
• Issues of cultural identity and belonging remain complex for many urban Native Americans