7.6 Women in international politics

Women in international politics have made significant strides, yet challenges persist. From national parliaments to diplomatic corps, representation is increasing but remains uneven. Global initiatives like CEDAW and SDG5 aim to advance women's rights, while feminist approaches critique traditional power structures.

Women play diverse roles in conflict and peace processes, challenging victim narratives. Transnational feminist movements like #MeToo highlight shared struggles across borders. Gender mainstreaming in development policies seeks to address economic inequalities, though critiques of existing paradigms continue to shape the discourse.

Global representation of women

• Examines the presence and influence of women in various international political arenas
• Highlights the progress made and persistent challenges in achieving gender parity in global governance
• Connects to broader themes in Women's Studies regarding power structures and representation

Women in national parliaments

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• Global average of women in national parliaments stands at approximately 25% as of 2021
• Rwanda leads with highest percentage of women in parliament at over 60%
• Quota systems implemented in many countries to increase women's representation
  • Examples include reserved seats (Uganda) and candidate list quotas (Argentina)
• Impacts of increased women's representation include:
  • Greater focus on social welfare policies
  • More collaborative leadership styles
  • Enhanced democratic legitimacy

Women in diplomatic corps

• Historically underrepresented field for women due to societal norms and institutional barriers
• Gradual increase in women ambassadors and foreign service officers since mid-20th century
• Notable pioneers include Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit, first woman president of UN General Assembly
• Challenges persist:
  • Work-life balance issues in demanding diplomatic postings
  • Gender bias in high-level appointments
  • Lack of mentorship and networking opportunities

Women in international organizations

• United Nations aims for 50/50 gender parity in all levels by 2028
• World Bank Group achieved gender parity in management positions in 2020
• Women leaders in international organizations:
  • Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala, Director-General of World Trade Organization
  • Christine Lagarde, President of European Central Bank
• Importance of women's perspectives in addressing global challenges (climate change, poverty)

Women's rights as human rights

• Explores the evolution of women's rights within the broader human rights framework
• Analyzes global efforts to promote gender equality and protect women's fundamental freedoms
• Relates to core Women's Studies concepts of intersectionality and systemic discrimination

UN conventions on women's rights

• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) adopted in 1979
  • Often described as international bill of rights for women
  • 189 countries have ratified CEDAW as of 2021
• Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (1995)
  • Comprehensive roadmap for advancing women's rights globally
  • Identified 12 critical areas of concern including poverty, education, and violence
• Optional Protocol to CEDAW (2000)
  • Allows individuals to submit complaints directly to CEDAW Committee
  • Strengthens enforcement mechanisms for women's rights

Global gender equality initiatives

• Sustainable Development Goal 5: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls
  • Targets include ending discrimination, eliminating violence, and ensuring equal opportunities
• HeForShe campaign launched by UN Women in 2014
  • Engages men and boys as advocates for gender equality
  • Focuses on changing social norms and behaviors
• Generation Equality Forum (2021)
  • Multi-stakeholder initiative to accelerate progress on gender equality
  • Resulted in $40 billion in commitments from governments, private sector, and civil society

Challenges to women's rights

• Persistent gender-based violence and discrimination in many regions
• Backlash against women's rights in some countries (restrictions on reproductive rights)
• Intersectional challenges faced by women from marginalized communities
  • Indigenous women often experience multiple forms of discrimination
  • LGBTQ+ women face unique barriers to equality and recognition
• Economic inequalities exacerbated by COVID-19 pandemic disproportionately affecting women

Feminist approaches to IR

• Introduces various feminist perspectives on international relations theory and practice
• Critiques traditional IR frameworks for neglecting gender dimensions of global politics
• Connects to broader feminist theory and methodology in Women's Studies

Liberal feminist perspectives

• Focuses on achieving equal rights and opportunities for women within existing international structures
• Advocates for increased representation of women in decision-making positions
• Emphasizes legal and institutional reforms to promote gender equality
  • Supports gender mainstreaming in international organizations
  • Promotes women's participation in peace negotiations and post-conflict reconstruction
• Critiqued for not challenging underlying power structures and Western-centric assumptions

Postcolonial feminist perspectives

• Highlights intersections of gender, race, and colonial legacies in global politics
• Challenges Western-centric notions of feminism and development
• Key concepts include:
  • Subaltern studies examining marginalized women's experiences
  • Transnational solidarity among women from Global South
• Critiques international development paradigms for perpetuating colonial power dynamics
  • Questions "savior" narratives in humanitarian interventions
  • Advocates for locally-led, culturally-sensitive approaches to women's empowerment

Critical feminist theories

• Examines how gender norms and power relations shape international politics
• Questions taken-for-granted assumptions in IR theory and practice
• Applies feminist methodologies to analyze global issues:
  • Standpoint theory emphasizing marginalized perspectives
  • Discourse analysis of gendered language in international relations
• Explores concepts of masculinity and femininity in war, diplomacy, and global governance
  • Critiques militarism and security paradigms as inherently gendered
  • Advocates for alternative conceptions of security centered on human needs

Women in conflict and peace

• Examines the multifaceted roles of women in conflict situations and peacebuilding processes
• Challenges traditional narratives that often overlook women's experiences and contributions
• Connects to Women's Studies themes of agency, violence against women, and social change

Women as victims vs agents

• Recognizes women's diverse experiences in conflict beyond victimhood
• Highlights women's roles as combatants, peace activists, and community leaders
• Examples of women's agency in conflict:
  • Women's Peace Movement in Liberia led by Leymah Gbowee
  • Kurdish Women's Protection Units (YPJ) fighting against ISIS
• Challenges stereotypes of women as inherently peaceful or passive
  • Explores complexities of women's motivations for participating in conflict
  • Examines how gender norms shape expectations of women's behavior in war and peace

Women in peacekeeping operations

• UN Security Council Resolution 1325 (2000) on Women, Peace and Security
  • Calls for increased participation of women in all aspects of peacekeeping and peacebuilding
  • Recognizes unique impact of conflict on women and girls
• Benefits of women's involvement in peacekeeping:
  • Improved access to local communities, especially women and children
  • Reduced rates of sexual exploitation and abuse by peacekeepers
  • More effective implementation of gender-sensitive policies
• Challenges to women's participation:
  • Underrepresentation in military and police forces of contributing countries
  • Gender bias and discrimination within peacekeeping missions
  • Lack of adequate facilities and support for women peacekeepers

Gender-based violence in conflict

• Widespread use of sexual violence as a weapon of war
  • Examples include conflicts in Bosnia, Rwanda, and Democratic Republic of Congo
• UN Security Council Resolution 1820 (2008) recognizes sexual violence as a tactic of war
• Impacts of conflict-related gender-based violence:
  • Physical and psychological trauma for survivors
  • Social stigma and ostracism in communities
  • Long-term consequences for post-conflict reconciliation and development
• Efforts to address gender-based violence in conflict:
  • International Criminal Court prosecutions for sexual violence as war crime
  • Survivor-centered approaches to support and rehabilitation
  • Prevention strategies focusing on changing attitudes and behaviors

Transnational feminist movements

• Explores global networks and collaborations among feminist activists and organizations
• Analyzes how feminist ideas and strategies circulate across national borders
• Relates to Women's Studies concepts of solidarity, diversity, and global sisterhood

Global women's marches

• Women's March on Washington in 2017 sparked worldwide solidarity events
  • Over 5 million participants in 673 marches across seven continents
• Focuses on intersectional issues including reproductive rights, racial justice, and LGBTQ+ equality
• Challenges and critiques:
  • Tensions between local and global priorities
  • Questions of inclusivity and representation of diverse women's experiences
• Impact on raising awareness and mobilizing grassroots activism globally

#MeToo movement worldwide

• Originally started by Tarana Burke in 2006, gained global prominence in 2017
• Spread rapidly through social media, exposing pervasiveness of sexual harassment and assault
• Adaptations in different cultural contexts:
  • #YoTambién in Spanish-speaking countries
  • #BalanceTonPorc in France
• Impacts beyond individual cases:
  • Changes in workplace policies and practices
  • Increased public discourse on consent and power dynamics
  • Legal reforms in some countries to strengthen protections against sexual violence

Intersectionality in global feminism

• Concept developed by Kimberlé Crenshaw, applied to international feminist movements
• Recognizes multiple, intersecting forms of oppression based on gender, race, class, sexuality, etc.
• Challenges to implementing intersectional approaches globally:
  • Balancing universal principles with local contexts
  • Addressing power imbalances within feminist movements
• Examples of intersectional feminist initiatives:
  • Black Lives Matter movement's global impact on discussions of race and gender
  • Indigenous women's activism on environmental and land rights issues

Gender and development

• Examines the relationship between gender equality and economic development globally
• Analyzes how development policies and practices impact women and gender relations
• Connects to Women's Studies themes of economic justice, labor, and globalization

Women in global economics

• Gender gap in labor force participation remains significant globally
  • Global average of 47% for women compared to 74% for men (2019)
• Unpaid care work disproportionately performed by women
  • Estimated value of $10.8 trillion annually if compensated at minimum wage
• Women's entrepreneurship as driver of economic growth
  • Challenges include access to finance, markets, and networks
• Impact of globalization on women's economic opportunities:
  • Increased employment in export-oriented industries
  • Precarious working conditions in global supply chains

Gender mainstreaming in policy

• Strategy to integrate gender perspectives into all stages of policy-making and implementation
• Adopted by UN Economic and Social Council in 1997
• Key elements of gender mainstreaming:
  • Gender analysis to assess differential impacts on women and men
  • Sex-disaggregated data collection and gender-sensitive indicators
  • Gender budgeting to allocate resources equitably
• Challenges in implementation:
  • Lack of political will and institutional capacity
  • Resistance to changing established practices and norms
  • Difficulty in measuring and evaluating impact

Critiques of development paradigms

• Feminist critiques of modernization theory and neoliberal approaches
  • Question assumptions of linear progress and market-driven development
• Ecofeminist perspectives on sustainable development
  • Highlight connections between environmental degradation and women's oppression
• Alternative development models centered on women's experiences:
  • Women in Development (WID) approach focuses on integrating women into existing structures
  • Gender and Development (GAD) approach emphasizes transforming gender relations
• Debates on universalism vs cultural relativism in development practices
  • Tensions between global standards and local contexts in promoting gender equality

Women's leadership in global politics

• Analyzes the increasing presence and impact of women in high-level international political roles
• Examines persistent barriers and strategies for advancing women's political participation
• Connects to Women's Studies themes of power, representation, and institutional change

Women heads of state

• Gradual increase in women serving as heads of state and government globally
  • As of 2021, 22 countries have a woman head of state or government
• Notable examples of women leaders:
  • Jacinda Ardern, Prime Minister of New Zealand, praised for crisis management
  • Angela Merkel, former Chancellor of Germany, key figure in European politics
• Impact of women's leadership styles:
  • Often associated with more collaborative and inclusive approaches
  • Greater emphasis on social welfare and environmental issues
• Challenges faced by women leaders:
  • Gender-based stereotypes and media scrutiny
  • Balancing expectations of "feminine" and "masculine" leadership traits

Women in multilateral negotiations

• Increasing representation of women in international diplomatic roles
  • Examples include Madeleine Albright, first female US Secretary of State
• Women's participation in peace negotiations:
  • Studies show correlation between women's involvement and durability of peace agreements
  • UN Women reports only 13% of negotiators in major peace processes were women (2008-2019)
• Role of women in climate change negotiations:
  • Christiana Figueres, key architect of Paris Agreement
  • Gender Action Plan adopted at COP23 to increase women's participation in climate talks
• Strategies for enhancing women's roles in negotiations:
  • Capacity-building programs for women diplomats
  • Gender-balanced delegations mandated by some countries and organizations

Barriers to women's political participation

• Structural obstacles:
  • Limited access to education and economic resources in many regions
  • Lack of family-friendly policies in political institutions
• Cultural and social barriers:
  • Gender stereotypes about women's leadership abilities
  • Disproportionate burden of domestic responsibilities
• Political factors:
  • Male-dominated party structures and candidate selection processes
  • Violence and harassment against women in politics
    • Inter-Parliamentary Union reports 82% of women parliamentarians experienced psychological violence
• Intersectional challenges:
  • Additional barriers faced by women of color, LGBTQ+ women, and women with disabilities
  • Importance of addressing multiple forms of discrimination simultaneously

Gender and global governance

• Examines how gender perspectives are integrated into international decision-making processes
• Analyzes efforts to promote gender equality within global institutions and policies
• Connects to Women's Studies themes of institutional change and gender mainstreaming

Gender quotas in international bodies

• Implemented to increase women's representation in global governance structures
• Types of quotas:
  • Reserved seats (African Union Commission requires 50% women commissioners)
  • Candidate list quotas (European Parliament political groups often use voluntary quotas)
• Impact of quotas:
  • Rapid increase in women's representation in some organizations
  • Criticisms include concerns about tokenism and merit
• Examples of quota implementation:
  • United Nations targets 50/50 gender balance at all levels by 2028
  • World Bank achieved gender parity in senior management in 2020

Gender perspectives in global policy

• Integration of gender analysis in policy formulation and implementation
• Key areas of focus:
  • Climate change (Gender Action Plan under UNFCCC)
  • Trade (WTO Informal Working Group on Trade and Gender)
  • Human rights (OHCHR Gender Integration initiative)
• Challenges in mainstreaming gender perspectives:
  • Lack of gender-disaggregated data in many policy areas
  • Resistance to changing established policy-making processes
• Importance of intersectional approaches:
  • Considering how policies impact women from diverse backgrounds differently
  • Addressing multiple forms of discrimination simultaneously

Feminist critiques of global institutions

• Challenges male-dominated power structures in international organizations
• Critiques of neoliberal economic policies promoted by institutions like IMF and World Bank
  • Disproportionate impact of structural adjustment programs on women
• Feminist perspectives on global security:
  • Questioning state-centric notions of security
  • Advocating for human security approaches that address gender-specific threats
• Calls for reform of global governance structures:
  • Greater transparency and accountability in decision-making processes
  • Increased representation of feminist civil society organizations
• Alternative models of global governance proposed by feminist scholars:
  • Emphasis on horizontal networks and participatory democracy
  • Integration of care ethics into international relations

Women's NGOs and advocacy

• Explores the role of women-led organizations in shaping global policy and promoting gender equality
• Analyzes strategies and impacts of transnational feminist advocacy networks
• Connects to Women's Studies themes of activism, social movements, and civil society

Transnational women's networks

• Global coalitions of women's organizations working across borders
• Examples of influential networks:
  • Women's Environment and Development Organization (WEDO)
  • Association for Women's Rights in Development (AWID)
• Strategies employed:
  • Information sharing and knowledge production
  • Coordinated advocacy campaigns at international forums
  • Capacity building for local women's organizations
• Challenges faced:
  • Power imbalances between Global North and South organizations
  • Securing sustainable funding and resources
  • Navigating diverse cultural and political contexts

Gender and climate change activism

• Women's leadership in environmental movements:
  • Wangari Maathai, founder of Green Belt Movement in Kenya
  • Vandana Shiva, advocate for ecofeminism and biodiversity
• Focus on gender-specific impacts of climate change:
  • Increased vulnerability of women to natural disasters
  • Disproportionate burden of resource scarcity on women and girls
• Advocacy for gender-responsive climate policies:
  • Inclusion of gender considerations in national climate action plans
  • Promoting women's participation in climate decision-making bodies
• Grassroots initiatives led by women:
  • Solar Mamas project training rural women as solar engineers
  • Women's farmer cooperatives implementing sustainable agriculture practices

Women's health in global context

• Advocacy for sexual and reproductive health and rights (SRHR):
  • Campaigns against restrictive abortion laws and policies
  • Promoting comprehensive sexuality education globally
• Maternal health initiatives:
  • Every Woman Every Child movement launched by UN in 2010
  • Focus on reducing maternal mortality and improving access to skilled birth attendants
• Addressing gender-based violence as a public health issue:
  • 16 Days of Activism Against Gender-Based Violence campaign
  • Efforts to integrate GBV prevention into healthcare systems
• Challenges in women's global health advocacy:
  • Opposition from conservative religious and political groups
  • Funding gaps for women's health programs, especially in Global South
  • Intersectional health disparities affecting marginalized women

Future of women in international politics

• Examines emerging trends and potential developments in women's roles in global governance
• Analyzes opportunities and challenges for advancing gender equality in international relations
• Connects to Women's Studies themes of social change, empowerment, and future-oriented thinking

Emerging trends in women's leadership

• Increasing pipeline of women in diplomacy and international organizations
  • More women enrolling in international relations and public policy programs
  • Growing networks of women professionals in global affairs
• Rise of feminist foreign policy approaches:
  • Sweden first country to explicitly adopt feminist foreign policy in 2014
  • Canada, France, and Mexico following suit with similar initiatives
• Generational shift in leadership styles:
  • Younger women leaders often emphasizing participatory and inclusive approaches
  • Greater comfort with digital diplomacy and social media engagement
• Intersectional leadership gaining prominence:
  • More women of color and LGBTQ+ women in visible international roles
  • Emphasis on bringing diverse perspectives to global decision-making

Technology and women's global engagement

• Social media as tool for transnational feminist organizing:
  • Rapid mobilization for global campaigns (Women's March, climate strikes)
  • Amplification of voices from marginalized communities
• Digital platforms enhancing women's political participation:
  • Online voter registration and civic education initiatives
  • Virtual town halls and consultations increasing accessibility
• Artificial intelligence and gender equality:
  • Potential for reducing bias in decision-making processes
  • Concerns about perpetuating gender stereotypes in AI development
• Cybersecurity and online violence against women in politics:
  • Increasing threats and harassment targeting women leaders online
  • Efforts to create safer digital spaces for women's political engagement

Challenges and opportunities ahead

• Persistent gender gaps in high-level political representation:
  • Need for sustained efforts to increase women's presence in leadership roles
  • Addressing structural barriers and unconscious biases
• Impact of global crises on gender equality progress:
  • COVID-19 pandemic exposing and exacerbating gender inequalities
  • Climate change disproportionately affecting women in vulnerable communities
• Opportunities for transformative change:
  • Growing recognition of importance of gender equality for sustainable development
  • Increased collaboration between government, civil society, and private sector
• Emerging issues requiring gender-sensitive approaches:
  • Regulation of new technologies and digital economies
  • Addressing demographic shifts and changing nature of work
• Importance of intergenerational dialogue and mentorship:
  • Leveraging experiences of pioneering women leaders
  • Nurturing new generation of feminist leaders in international politics