The Aztec and Inca empires dominated and South America before European contact. These complex societies built vast territories, developed advanced technologies, and created intricate social structures. Their rise and fall shaped the Americas.
In North America, the and Mississippian cultures flourished. These societies developed sophisticated architecture, agriculture, and art. Their achievements, including and earthen mounds, showcase the diversity and ingenuity of Native American civilizations.
The Aztec and Inca Empires
Rise and expansion of Aztec and Inca
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Originated in the Valley of Mexico, a fertile region surrounded by mountains and lakes
Founded on an island in Lake Texcoco in 1325 CE, which became their capital city and a major center of trade and power
Formed the with Texcoco and Tlacopan in 1428 CE, establishing a powerful military and political confederation
Expanded through military conquests and alliances, subjugating neighboring and demanding tribute
Controlled a vast territory in Mesoamerica at its peak, stretching from the Pacific Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico
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Originated in the Cusco Valley of the Andes Mountains, a region with challenging terrain and diverse ecosystems
(1438-1471 CE) began the expansion of the empire, initiating a period of rapid growth and consolidation
Expanded through military conquests and diplomacy, incorporating neighboring kingdoms and ethnic groups
Incorporated diverse ethnic groups into the empire, allowing them to maintain their local traditions and leadership while under Inca rule
Controlled a vast territory along the western coast of South America at its peak, extending from modern-day Ecuador to central Chile
Aztec vs Inca: society and culture
Social structures
Aztec
Hierarchical society with the emperor at the top, considered a divine ruler and descendant of the gods
Noble class, consisting of warriors, priests, and government officials, held significant power and privileges
Commoners, the majority of the population, were farmers, artisans, and merchants
Slaves, often captives from wars or individuals unable to pay debts, performed labor and could be sacrificed
Emphasis on military prowess and warrior culture, with successful warriors gaining prestige and social mobility
Inca
Hierarchical society with the at the top, considered a divine ruler and descendant of the sun god
Nobility, consisting of the Inca royal family, regional leaders, and high-ranking officials, held power and influence
Commoners, the majority of the population, were farmers, herders, and craftsmen
Yanacona (servants), a class of individuals who performed labor and services for the state and nobility
system: extended family units with collective land ownership and shared labor responsibilities
Religious practices
Aztec
Polytheistic religion with a pantheon of gods, each associated with specific aspects of nature and human life (, , )
Believed in the importance of human sacrifice to appease the gods and maintain cosmic balance
Practiced ritual bloodletting and heart extraction, often involving captives from wars or volunteers
Conducted elaborate religious ceremonies and festivals, such as the New Fire Ceremony and the Feast of Toxcatl
Inca
Polytheistic religion with a focus on nature deities, such as the sun, moon, earth, and mountains
Worshipped Inti (sun god) as the supreme deity and the ancestor of the Inca royal family
Practiced animal sacrifice, particularly llamas and guinea pigs, and made offerings of food, textiles, and precious objects to the gods
Conducted religious ceremonies and festivals, such as the (Festival of the Sun) and the (Festival of the Prince)
Technological achievements
Aztec
Developed a sophisticated agricultural system with (floating gardens), which increased crop yields and supported a large population
Constructed impressive temples and pyramids, such as the , using stone and lime mortar
Created accurate calendars, including the (solar calendar) and the (sacred calendar), based on advanced astronomical knowledge
Developed a complex writing system using pictographs and ideograms, which recorded historical events, religious beliefs, and tribute records
Inca
Built an extensive road network () for communication and transportation, spanning over 40,000 km and connecting the empire
Developed advanced agricultural techniques, such as , to cultivate crops in the challenging Andean terrain
Constructed impressive stone architecture, such as Machu Picchu, using precise stonecutting and masonry techniques without mortar
Created a sophisticated record-keeping system using , knotted strings that encoded numerical and narrative information
Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica
Characterized by the development of complex city-states and empires before European contact
Implemented tribute systems, where conquered territories paid goods and services to the ruling power
Practiced various forms of , with elaborate pantheons of gods and goddesses
Developed advanced agricultural techniques to support large populations in diverse environments
North American Societies
Anasazi and Mississippian developments
Anasazi ()
Inhabited the Four Corners region of the American Southwest, encompassing parts of modern-day Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah
Developed advanced architectural techniques
Built multi-story stone structures called pueblos, which housed multiple families and served as centers of community life
Constructed , circular underground chambers used for religious ceremonies, political meetings, and social gatherings
Created intricate pottery designs, featuring geometric patterns and stylized representations of animals and humans
Produced detailed rock art, including petroglyphs (carved) and pictographs (painted), depicting religious symbols, daily life, and historical events
Developed sophisticated irrigation systems, such as check dams and canals, to manage water resources in the arid environment
Practiced advanced agricultural techniques, such as dryland farming and the cultivation of maize, beans, and squash
Flourished in the Mississippi River Valley and the southeastern United States, encompassing parts of modern-day Illinois, Missouri, Arkansas, and neighboring states
Built large earthen mounds for religious and political purposes, serving as platforms for temples, elite residences, and public gatherings
, the largest Mississippian settlement, featured numerous mounds and was a major center of trade and cultural exchange
, the largest earthen structure in North America, stood at the center of Cahokia and likely served as a platform for important ceremonies and elite residences
Developed a complex chiefdom society with social stratification, with chiefs and elite members at the top and commoners at the bottom
Engaged in long-distance trade networks, exchanging goods such as copper, shells, and other prestige items with neighboring regions
Created distinctive pottery styles, such as the and the , featuring intricate designs and motifs
Produced carved stone figurines, often depicting humans and animals, which may have served religious or ceremonial purposes
Known as , they constructed large earthen structures for various purposes, including burial sites and ceremonial platforms