8.3 Articulation and expression markings

Articulation and expression markings are essential tools for musicians to bring written music to life. These markings guide performers on how to play individual notes and shape musical phrases, influencing the overall character and mood of a piece.

From staccato to legato, accents to tenuto, these markings create a wide range of musical effects. Understanding and applying them correctly allows musicians to interpret composers' intentions and add their own artistic expression to performances.

Types of articulation markings

• Articulation markings provide instructions on how individual notes or passages should be played to create the intended musical expression
• Different articulation markings indicate specific techniques for attacking, sustaining, and releasing notes
• Understanding and applying articulation markings is essential for interpreting and performing music accurately and expressively

Staccato vs legato

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• Staccato indicates notes should be played short and detached with space between each note (staccatissimo is even shorter)
• Legato indicates notes should be played smoothly and connected with no space between each note
• Staccato and legato are opposite articulations that create contrast in the musical line
  • Staccato can create a light, crisp, or energetic character
  • Legato can create a smooth, flowing, or lyrical character

Accents and emphasis

• Accents indicate certain notes should be emphasized or played louder than surrounding notes (>, ^)
• Emphasis markings highlight important notes in the melodic or harmonic structure
• Accents and emphasis add interest, shape phrases, and guide the listener's attention
  • Accents can fall on downbeats, syncopated rhythms, or unexpected notes
  • Emphasis can distinguish melody notes from accompaniment or bring out key harmonic changes

Tenuto and portato

• Tenuto indicates notes should be held for their full value or slightly longer, without separation
• Portato indicates notes should be played with a slight space between them, but not as short as staccato
• Tenuto and portato create subtle variations in note length and separation for expressive purposes
  • Tenuto can create a sense of weight, importance, or arrival on certain notes
  • Portato can create a gentle articulation between legato and staccato

Articulation effects on sound

• Articulation markings influence several aspects of how notes sound and are perceived by the listener
• Performers use articulation techniques to vary and control the sound production on their instrument
• Articulation choices can significantly impact the overall character, mood, and style of the music

Note length and separation

• Articulation affects the duration of individual notes and the amount of space or overlap between them
• Staccato, legato, tenuto, and portato create different degrees of note length and separation
• Note length and separation influence the sense of rhythm, pace, and continuity in the music
  • Shorter notes can create a detached, crisp, or driving feel
  • Longer notes can create a sustained, smooth, or connected feel

Dynamics and volume

• Articulation is closely related to dynamics, or the loudness and softness of notes
• Accents and emphasis markings often indicate a change in dynamic level on specific notes
• Articulation can affect the perceived volume and intensity of notes even without a dynamic change
  • Staccato notes may sound shorter but can also sound louder or more pronounced
  • Legato notes may sound softer or less pronounced even at the same dynamic level

Tone color and timbre

• Articulation influences the tone color or timbre, which is the unique quality of sound on different instruments
• The attack, sustain, and release of notes affects the overtones and harmonics present in the sound
• Articulation techniques can create different timbral effects and tone colors within an instrument's range
  • Staccato can create a brighter, edgier, or more percussive tone
  • Legato can create a darker, warmer, or more blended tone

Common expression markings

• Expression markings provide additional instructions beyond articulation for interpreting and conveying the character of the music
• Composers use expression markings to indicate the desired tempo, mood, and phrasing of a piece or passage
• Expression markings guide performers in shaping the overall flow and contour of the music to create an expressive performance

Tempo indications

• Tempo markings indicate the speed or pace of the music, often using Italian terms (Allegro, Andante, Presto)
• Tempo markings may include modifiers for subtle variations in speed (poco, molto, moderato)
• Changes in tempo within a piece are indicated by new tempo markings or terms like ritardando, accelerando
  • A tempo means to return to the original speed after a change
  • Rubato indicates a flexible, expressive tempo that may slow down or speed up slightly

Mood and character descriptors

• Mood and character markings describe the desired feeling, atmosphere, or style of the music
• Common mood descriptors include terms like dolce (sweetly), agitato (agitated), maestoso (majestic), and tranquillo (tranquil)
• Character descriptors may reference a dance style, cultural influence, or genre (march, waltz, samba, blues)
  • Con fuoco means to play with fire or intensity
  • Cantabile means to play in a singing or lyrical style

Phrasing and interpretation

• Phrasing markings indicate how notes should be grouped and shaped to create musical sentences or ideas
• Slurs and phrase marks show which notes belong together in a continuous line or gesture
• Interpretation markings suggest how to shape the contour, direction, and expression of the line
  • Crescendo and diminuendo markings indicate to gradually get louder or softer
  • Hairpins (< >) show the relative scope and placement of the volume change

Notation of articulation

• Articulation markings are notated using symbols, lines, or text instructions in the musical score
• The placement and alignment of articulation markings conveys which notes and passages they apply to
• Some articulation symbols have variations or can be combined to create more complex effects and textures

Symbols above or below notes

• Most articulation markings are written above or below the notehead they apply to
• Staccato and tenuto are written as dots and lines directly above or below the note
• Accents are written as symbols (>, ^) above or below the note
  • Marcato is written as a ^ above the note and indicates a strong, accented attack
  • Sforzando (sfz) is written below the note and indicates a sudden, strong accent

Placement and alignment

• The placement of articulation markings indicates which notes or beats they apply to in the measure
• Articulations are aligned vertically with the note and horizontally with the beat position
• Articulations that apply to a group of notes, like slurs or phrase marks, extend across the relevant noteheads
  • Slurs and phrase marks indicate legato articulation and phrasing
  • Slurs and phrase marks can also clarify which notes should be played as a single gesture on string or wind instruments

Combinations of markings

• Some articulation markings can be combined or stacked to create more specific or nuanced effects
• Staccato and tenuto can be combined to indicate a slight separation between notes with a full duration
• Accents can be combined with staccato or tenuto to indicate the strength and length of the emphasis
  • A staccato dot under an accent indicates a short, strong attack
  • A tenuto line under an accent indicates a full-length, strong attack

Articulation techniques

• Performers use specific techniques on their instrument to execute the articulation markings in the music
• Articulation techniques involve manipulating the attack, sustain, and release of notes through various physical means
• Different instrument families have their own set of articulation techniques based on their sound production mechanism

Bowing for string instruments

• String instruments like violin, viola, cello, and bass use the bow to control articulation
• The speed, pressure, and placement of the bow on the string affects the attack, sustain, and release of notes
• Bowing techniques for different articulations include:
  • Detaché: separate bow strokes for each note
  • Legato: smooth, connected bow changes in a single direction
  • Spiccato: bouncing the bow off the string for short, crisp notes
  • Pizzicato: plucking the string with the finger for a percussive effect

Tonguing for wind instruments

• Wind instruments like flute, clarinet, saxophone, trumpet, and trombone use the tongue to control articulation
• The speed, placement, and pressure of the tongue against the reed or mouthpiece affects the attack and separation of notes
• Tonguing techniques for different articulations include:
  • Single tonguing: saying "tah" or "dah" for each note
  • Double tonguing: alternating "tah-kah" or "doo-goo" for faster passages
  • Flutter tonguing: rolling the tongue or growling for a buzzy effect
  • Slap tonguing: forcefully slapping the reed with the tongue for a percussive effect

Fingering for keyboard instruments

• Keyboard instruments like piano, harpsichord, and organ use the fingers to control articulation
• The speed, pressure, and timing of finger movements on the keys affects the attack, sustain, and release of notes
• Fingering techniques for different articulations include:
  • Legato: connecting notes smoothly with finger substitution or sliding
  • Staccato: releasing notes quickly with a slight lift of the finger
  • Tenuto: holding notes for their full duration with a firm touch
  • Accent: striking notes with extra force and speed for emphasis

Expressive elements beyond articulation

• In addition to articulation, performers use other expressive elements to shape the sound and character of the music
• Expressive techniques involve manipulating pitch, rhythm, and volume to create emotional and musical effects
• Expressive elements add depth, nuance, and personal interpretation to the written notation of the score

Vibrato and tremolo

• Vibrato is a rapid, slight fluctuation in pitch that adds warmth and expression to sustained notes
  • String instruments create vibrato by rocking the fingertip back and forth on the string
  • Wind instruments create vibrato by pulsing the air stream or jaw
  • Voice creates vibrato by oscillating the vocal folds
• Tremolo is a rapid repetition of a single note or alternation between two notes to create a shimmering or trembling effect
  • String instruments create tremolo by rapidly moving the bow back and forth on the string
  • Keyboard instruments create tremolo by rapidly alternating between two notes with the fingers

Rubato and tempo flexibility

• Rubato is an expressive stretching or bending of the tempo to create a sense of freedom and spontaneity
  • Performers may linger on certain notes or phrases and then catch up to the original tempo later
  • Rubato should be used tastefully and not disrupt the overall flow and structure of the music
• Tempo flexibility involves slight changes in speed to shape the character and contour of the music
  • Performers may push or pull the tempo to create excitement, tension, or relaxation
  • Tempo changes should be organic and coordinated with the harmonic and melodic content of the music

Dynamics and crescendo/diminuendo

• Dynamics refer to the overall volume level of the music, from very soft (pianissimo) to very loud (fortissimo)
  • Performers use dynamics to create contrast, balance, and expression in the musical texture
  • Dynamic changes can be sudden (subito) or gradual (crescendo/diminuendo)
• Crescendo and diminuendo are gradual increases or decreases in volume over a period of time
  • Performers use crescendo to create a sense of building intensity, excitement, or arrival
  • Performers use diminuendo to create a sense of fading away, calmness, or closure
  • Crescendo and diminuendo are often coordinated with the rising or falling direction of the melodic line

Interpreting composer intentions

• Performers use articulation and expressive elements to interpret the composer's intentions and bring the music to life
• Understanding the historical context, performance practices, and musical style of a piece informs interpretive decisions
• Performers also bring their own artistic vision and creativity to the interpretation while respecting the composer's intentions

Historical context and style

• Researching the historical period, cultural influences, and musical style of a piece provides clues for interpretation
  • Baroque music often features terraced dynamics, ornamentation, and dance rhythms
  • Classical music often features clear phrasing, balanced form, and restrained expression
  • Romantic music often features expressive melodies, rich harmonies, and rubato
• Consulting historical treatises, recordings, and scholarly sources can provide insights into the performance practices of different eras and styles

Performance practice traditions

• Many pieces have established performance practice traditions that have been passed down through generations of performers and teachers
  • These traditions may include specific articulations, phrasings, tempo changes, or ornamentations that are not explicitly written in the score
  • Performers should be aware of these traditions but also feel free to experiment and find their own interpretations
• Listening to recordings of respected performers and attending live performances can provide models and inspiration for interpretation

Personal artistic choices

• Ultimately, performers must make their own artistic choices in interpreting and expressing the music
  • These choices involve balancing the composer's intentions, historical context, and personal creativity
  • Performers should experiment with different articulations, dynamics, and phrasings to find what feels authentic and compelling
• Developing a personal artistic voice and vision is an ongoing process that requires self-reflection, experimentation, and feedback from others

Practicing articulation

• Practicing articulation involves isolating and refining the technical and expressive aspects of note production
• Performers should practice articulation in the context of scales, etudes, and repertoire to develop control and consistency
• Articulation practice should be integrated with other elements of musicianship such as rhythm, intonation, and phrasing

Isolating and repeating passages

• Isolating specific passages or phrases that involve challenging articulations can help focus and refine the technique
  • Practice the passage slowly at first, exaggerating the articulation and ensuring each note is clear and precise
  • Gradually increase the tempo while maintaining the articulation and control
• Repeating passages multiple times with different articulations can help develop flexibility and expressiveness
  • Practice the passage with all staccato, all legato, and different combinations of articulations
  • Experiment with different accent patterns, dynamics, and phrasings to explore musical possibilities

Varying articulation for contrast

• Varying the articulation within a phrase or section can create musical interest and shape the line
  • Practice alternating between staccato and legato to create contrast and forward motion
  • Practice adding accents or emphasis to certain notes to highlight the melodic or rhythmic structure
• Varying the articulation between different voices or instruments can create texture and dialogue in the ensemble
  • Practice matching or contrasting articulations with other parts to create a cohesive or complementary sound
  • Practice trading or echoing articulation motives to create a sense of conversation and interplay

Matching articulation in ensembles

• Matching articulation in an ensemble requires careful listening, coordination, and blending of sounds
  • Practice matching the length, shape, and style of articulations with other players to create a unified texture
  • Practice aligning the timing and placement of articulations to create a precise and cohesive rhythm
• Communicating and adapting articulation in real-time requires visual and aural cues from the ensemble
  • Watch the conductor or leader for gestures and indications of articulation changes or accents
  • Listen for the articulation of the melody or dominant voice and match or complement it accordingly
  • Adjust the articulation to balance and blend with the dynamic level and tone color of the ensemble