8.1 Samkhya: Dualistic philosophy

Samkhya, one of Hinduism's oldest schools, offers a dualistic view of reality. It posits two fundamental principles: Purusha (eternal consciousness) and Prakriti (primordial matter). This philosophy explains the universe's creation and evolution through the interplay of these two forces.

Samkhya's concepts deeply influenced other Hindu schools and scriptures. Its ideas about consciousness, matter, and the three gunas (qualities) shaped Yoga, Vedanta, and even the Bhagavad Gita. Understanding Samkhya provides crucial insights into Hindu thought and its development over time.

Samkhya Dualism: Purusha and Prakriti

Purusha: Eternal Consciousness

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• Purusha is the eternal, unchanging, and passive witness of the manifest world
• Pure consciousness, devoid of qualities or attributes
• The true self or atman
• Distinct and independent from prakriti
• The goal of Samkhya is to realize the true nature of purusha as distinct from prakriti, leading to liberation (moksha)

Prakriti: Primordial Matter

• Prakriti is the eternal, ever-changing, and active principle of the manifest world
• Primordial matter or substance from which all phenomena arise, including the mind, intellect, and ego
• Evolves and involves to create the manifest world for the sake of purusha's experience
• Composed of three fundamental qualities or attributes called gunas: sattva, rajas, and tamas
• Distinct and independent from purusha

Three Gunas in Universe Manifestation

Sattva: Purity and Balance

• Sattva is the quality of light, clarity, and wisdom
• Leads to knowledge, happiness, and spiritual growth
• Individuals with a predominance of sattva are characterized by calmness, contentment, and detachment
• Examples: a serene meditation practice, a balanced and nutritious diet

Rajas: Activity and Passion

• Rajas is the quality of energy, action, and desire
• Leads to activity, ambition, and worldly pursuits
• Individuals with a predominance of rajas are characterized by restlessness, passion, and attachment
• Examples: a high-powered business executive, an intense workout session

Tamas: Inertia and Ignorance

• Tamas is the quality of darkness, ignorance, and inertia
• Leads to delusion, laziness, and stagnation
• Individuals with a predominance of tamas are characterized by dullness, ignorance, and apathy
• Examples: a person in a deep, dreamless sleep, a couch potato watching television for hours

Interplay of Gunas

• The interplay of the three gunas creates the diversity and dynamism of the manifest world
• The relative proportions of the gunas determine the nature and characteristics of all phenomena, from the gross elements to the subtlest aspects of the mind
• The gunas are the building blocks of the manifest world and are present in varying proportions in all phenomena, including the mind, intellect, and ego

Samkhya's Process of Evolution and Involution

Evolution (Sarga)

• Evolution begins with the disturbance of the equilibrium of the three gunas in prakriti, triggered by the proximity of purusha
• The first evolute of prakriti is mahat or cosmic intelligence, which gives rise to ahamkara (ego or sense of individuality)
• From ahamkara, three types emerge: sattvic (vaikarika), rajasic (taijasa), and tamasic (bhutadi)
• The sattvic ahamkara gives rise to the mind (manas), the five sense organs (jnanendriyas), and the five organs of action (karmendriyas)
• The rajasic ahamkara gives rise to the five subtle elements (tanmatras)
• The tamasic ahamkara gives rise to the five gross elements (mahabhutas): earth, water, fire, air, and ether
• The process of evolution continues with the combination and permutation of the gross elements, giving rise to the diverse objects and beings of the manifest world

Involution (Pratisarga)

• Involution is the reverse process of evolution, where the manifest world dissolves back into prakriti
• Occurs when the three gunas return to a state of equilibrium, and the proximity of purusha is withdrawn
• The cycle of evolution and involution is perpetual, with the manifest world being created and dissolved repeatedly
• This cycle continues until purusha attains liberation through the realization of its true nature as distinct from prakriti

Samkhya's Influence on Hindu Philosophy

Impact on Other Schools

• Samkhya is one of the oldest and most influential schools of Hindu philosophy
• Its dualistic framework and concepts have had a profound impact on the development of other philosophical schools
• The Yoga school, founded by Patanjali, adopts the metaphysical framework of Samkhya but adds the concept of Ishvara (God) and emphasizes meditation and self-discipline
• The Vedanta school, particularly Advaita Vedanta, incorporates elements of Samkhya philosophy, such as prakriti and the three gunas, but reinterprets them in a non-dualistic framework
• The Purva Mimamsa school accepts the Samkhya view of purusha and prakriti but emphasizes dharma and the performance of duties
• The Nyaya and Vaisheshika schools engage with Samkhya concepts and arguments in their philosophical discussions and debates

Integration in Hindu Scriptures

• The Bhagavad Gita, a seminal Hindu scripture, integrates Samkhya concepts with devotional theism (bhakti) and the philosophy of karma yoga
• Presents a synthesis of different philosophical perspectives
• Samkhya's influence extends beyond Hindu philosophy, with its concepts and terminology being adopted and adapted by Buddhist and Jain thinkers in their own philosophical systems