8.1 Types of Electoral Systems and Their Impacts

Electoral systems are the rules for turning votes into seats. They come in three main flavors: plurality, majority, and proportional representation. Each type has its own quirks that shape how politics works in a country.

These systems affect everything from how many parties can thrive to how stable governments are. They also influence who gets represented and how fairly. There's no perfect system – it's all about trade-offs between different goals.

Electoral Systems: Types and Effects

Plurality, Majority, and Proportional Representation Systems

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• Electoral systems establish the rules and procedures for translating votes into seats in a legislature or other elected body
• Plurality systems, or "first-past-the-post," give the seat to the candidate with the most votes, even without a majority (United States, United Kingdom, Canada)
• Majority systems mandate that a candidate receive an absolute majority (50% + 1) to win, often requiring a runoff election between the top two candidates if no one reaches this threshold (France, Brazil)
• Proportional representation (PR) systems distribute seats based on the percentage of votes each party receives
  • Party-list PR: Voters choose a party rather than a candidate
  • Single transferable vote (STV): Voters rank candidates in order of preference
• Mixed electoral systems blend elements of plurality/majority systems with proportional representation (Germany combines single-member districts and party lists)

Effects on Political Party Systems and Government Stability

• Electoral systems influence the nature of political party competition and the number of viable parties
  • Duverger's Law: Plurality systems favor two-party systems, while PR systems encourage multiparty systems
• Plurality systems often lead to the underrepresentation of smaller parties and the overrepresentation of larger parties, potentially resulting in a "manufactured majority" (a party wins a majority of seats without a majority of the popular vote)
• PR systems typically provide more proportional representation, with the percentage of seats a party wins closely matching their vote share, leading to better representation of diverse political views and minority groups
• Majority systems with runoff elections can foster coalition-building and more moderate policies, as candidates must appeal to a broader electorate to win
• Government stability is affected by electoral systems
  • Plurality systems frequently produce single-party majority governments, which can be more stable and decisive
  • PR systems are more likely to result in coalition governments, which can be less stable but more consensual

Electoral Systems: Advantages vs Disadvantages

Fairness, Accountability, and Governability

• Plurality systems are straightforward and easy for voters to understand but can lead to "wasted votes" and the underrepresentation of smaller parties, which may be perceived as less fair and representative
• PR systems are generally considered more fair and representative, as they better reflect the diversity of political opinions in a society, but they can result in fragmented parliaments and unstable coalition governments
• Majority systems with runoff elections ensure that the winning candidate has a mandate from a majority of voters, enhancing legitimacy and accountability, but they can be more costly and time-consuming to administer
• Single-member district systems (plurality or majority) provide a clear link between representatives and their constituents, enhancing accountability, while party-list PR systems can weaken this link, as representatives are more accountable to their party than to voters
• Electoral systems that produce clear majorities and single-party governments (plurality systems) can enhance governability and decisive decision-making, while PR systems resulting in coalition governments may require more negotiation and compromise, slowing down the policy-making process

Trade-offs and Considerations

• No electoral system is perfect; each involves trade-offs between different values and objectives
  • Plurality systems prioritize simplicity, decisiveness, and local representation but may sacrifice proportionality and inclusiveness
  • PR systems prioritize fairness, diversity, and broad representation but may lead to fragmentation and instability
• The choice of electoral system depends on a country's political, social, and historical context, as well as its priorities and goals
  • Countries with deep ethnic, religious, or regional cleavages may prefer PR to ensure the representation of all groups
  • Countries with a strong tradition of local representation and accountability may favor single-member districts
• Electoral system reform is often a contentious and difficult process, as political actors have vested interests in maintaining the status quo or shaping the rules to their advantage
  • Changing an electoral system requires careful consideration of the potential consequences and trade-offs, as well as broad political consensus

Electoral Systems and Representation

Minority Groups and Women

• PR systems are generally more favorable to the representation of minority groups and women compared to plurality/majority systems, as PR allows for the election of candidates from smaller parties that may represent these groups
• In plurality systems, minority groups and women may struggle to win representation if they are geographically dispersed or if parties do not prioritize their nomination in winnable districts
• Some countries using PR systems have adopted gender quotas or "zipper lists" (alternating male and female candidates) to ensure better representation of women, leading to higher levels of women's representation (Sweden, Rwanda)
• Reserved seats or special districts for minority groups are another way to ensure their representation, regardless of the electoral system (reserved seats for Maori in New Zealand, scheduled castes and tribes in India)

Factors Beyond Electoral Systems

• Political culture, socioeconomic inequalities, and the role of money in politics also influence the representation of marginalized groups
  • A society's attitudes towards gender equality and minority rights can affect the willingness of parties to nominate diverse candidates and the willingness of voters to support them
  • Socioeconomic barriers, such as access to education and resources, can limit the ability of marginalized groups to run for office and mount effective campaigns
  • The increasing role of money in politics can disadvantage candidates from underrepresented groups who may have less access to wealthy donors and networks
• Electoral systems alone cannot guarantee fully inclusive representation; broader social, economic, and political reforms may be necessary to address systemic inequalities and barriers to participation
  • Measures such as campaign finance regulations, public funding for candidates, and civic education can help level the playing field and empower marginalized groups to participate in the political process