8.6 Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates

The Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates were pivotal Islamic empires that shaped the religious and cultural landscape of the Middle East. They expanded Islamic rule, developed unique art and architecture, and fostered intellectual growth through institutions like the House of Wisdom.

These caliphates left lasting legacies in Islamic civilization, from artistic traditions to the preservation of ancient knowledge. Their rule also solidified the Sunni-Shia divide and influenced later empires, continuing to impact the Islamic world today.

Rise of Islamic empires

• The rise of Islamic empires marks a significant period in the history of the Religions of the West course, as it showcases the rapid expansion and consolidation of Islamic rule following the death of the Prophet Muhammad
• This section explores the origins and establishment of the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties, two of the most influential Islamic empires that shaped the political, religious, and cultural landscape of the Middle East and beyond

Umayyad dynasty origins

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• The Umayyad dynasty was established by Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan, a prominent companion of the Prophet Muhammad and the governor of Syria
• Muawiya challenged the authority of Ali, the fourth Rightly Guided Caliph, leading to the First Fitna (civil war) and the eventual establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate in 661 CE
• The Umayyads were based in Damascus and were known for their Arab aristocratic rule and military prowess

Abbasid revolution

• The Abbasid revolution was a rebellion against the Umayyad dynasty, led by the descendants of the Prophet Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abdul-Muttalib
• The Abbasids gained support from various groups, including the Shia, non-Arab Muslims (mawali), and those dissatisfied with Umayyad rule
• In 750 CE, the Abbasids successfully overthrew the Umayyads and established their own caliphate, marking a significant shift in Islamic political power

Expansion vs consolidation

• The Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates faced the challenge of balancing territorial expansion with the consolidation of their rule
• The Umayyads focused on rapid military conquests, expanding Islamic rule to North Africa, Iberia, and Central Asia
• The Abbasids, while still engaging in military campaigns, placed greater emphasis on consolidating their power, developing a centralized bureaucracy, and fostering a flourishing intellectual and cultural environment

Umayyad Caliphate

• The Umayyad Caliphate (661-750 CE) was the first hereditary dynasty in Islamic history, marking a shift from the leadership of the Rightly Guided Caliphs
• Under Umayyad rule, the Islamic empire experienced significant territorial expansion, cultural development, and political challenges

Dynastic rule

• The Umayyads established a hereditary system of succession, with power passing from father to son or to other male relatives
• This dynastic rule differed from the leadership of the Rightly Guided Caliphs, who were chosen based on their piety, wisdom, and consensus among the Muslim community
• The Umayyad caliphs faced criticism for their perceived worldliness and lack of religious authority, which contributed to the eventual downfall of the dynasty

Conquest of Iberia

• One of the most significant military achievements of the Umayyad Caliphate was the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula (modern-day Spain and Portugal) in 711 CE
• Muslim forces, led by the Berber general Tariq ibn Ziyad, crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and defeated the Visigothic Kingdom, establishing Islamic rule in the region
• The Iberian Peninsula, known as Al-Andalus under Muslim rule, became a center of Islamic culture, learning, and religious diversity

Dome of the Rock

• The Dome of the Rock, located in Jerusalem, is one of the most iconic examples of Umayyad architecture and religious symbolism
• Built during the reign of Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan in 691 CE, the Dome of the Rock is situated on the Temple Mount, a site sacred to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
• The structure features a golden dome and intricate mosaics, showcasing the wealth and artistic achievements of the Umayyad Caliphate

Arabization policies

• The Umayyads implemented policies aimed at promoting Arab culture and language throughout the Islamic empire
• Arabic became the official language of administration, and non-Arab converts to Islam (mawali) were encouraged to adopt Arab customs and traditions
• These Arabization policies helped to create a sense of unity and shared identity among the diverse populations under Umayyad rule

Treatment of non-Muslims

• Under the Umayyad Caliphate, non-Muslims (dhimmis) were granted protection and religious freedom in exchange for paying a special tax (jizya)
• Dhimmis, which included Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians, were allowed to practice their faiths and maintain their own religious institutions
• However, they faced certain restrictions and social inequalities, such as being prohibited from holding high political offices and wearing certain clothing items

Abbasid Caliphate

• The Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258 CE) succeeded the Umayyads and ushered in a golden age of Islamic civilization, marked by cultural, intellectual, and scientific advancements
• The Abbasids shifted the center of power from Damascus to Baghdad and embraced a more inclusive and cosmopolitan approach to governance

Persian influences

• The Abbasid Caliphate was heavily influenced by Persian culture and traditions, as the Abbasids had gained significant support from the Persian population during their revolution against the Umayyads
• Persian bureaucratic practices, such as the use of a vizier (chief minister), were adopted by the Abbasid administration
• Persian art, literature, and court customs also had a profound impact on Abbasid culture, leading to a synthesis of Arab and Persian elements

Baghdad as capital

• The Abbasids established Baghdad as their capital city in 762 CE, strategically located along the Tigris River in modern-day Iraq
• Baghdad quickly became a center of learning, commerce, and cultural exchange, attracting scholars, artists, and merchants from across the Islamic world and beyond
• The city's Round City, built by Caliph Al-Mansur, served as a symbol of Abbasid power and architectural innovation

House of Wisdom

• The House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Hikma) was a renowned library and intellectual center established in Baghdad during the reign of Caliph Harun al-Rashid
• The institution housed an extensive collection of books and manuscripts from various disciplines, including science, mathematics, philosophy, and literature
• Scholars at the House of Wisdom engaged in translation, research, and intellectual discourse, contributing to the preservation and advancement of knowledge from Greek, Persian, and Indian sources

Islamic Golden Age

• The Abbasid Caliphate is often associated with the Islamic Golden Age, a period of remarkable cultural, scientific, and intellectual achievements
• Abbasid scholars made significant contributions to fields such as mathematics (algebra), astronomy, medicine (Ibn Sina's Canon of Medicine), and philosophy (Al-Kindi, Al-Farabi)
• This period also witnessed the development of Islamic art and architecture, including the Great Mosque of Samarra and the use of geometric patterns and calligraphy

Decline of central authority

• Despite its many achievements, the Abbasid Caliphate faced challenges that led to the gradual decline of its central authority
• The rise of regional dynasties, such as the Tahirids in Persia and the Tulunids in Egypt, weakened the power of the Abbasid caliphs
• The Siege of Baghdad by the Mongols in 1258 CE marked the end of the Abbasid Caliphate, although the Abbasid line continued in Cairo under the protection of the Mamluk Sultanate

Religion in the caliphates

• The Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates played a significant role in shaping the religious landscape of the Islamic world, with both Sunni and Shia Islam developing distinct identities and practices
• Non-Muslims, particularly Christians and Jews, also lived under Islamic rule and were subject to specific regulations and social dynamics

Sunni Islam dominance

• Sunni Islam, which emphasizes the importance of the Sunnah (the practices and teachings of the Prophet Muhammad) and the consensus of the Muslim community, became the dominant branch of Islam during the Umayyad and Abbasid periods
• The Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs promoted Sunni Islam as the official state religion, patronizing Sunni scholars and institutions
• The development of Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) and the codification of Hadith collections took place primarily within Sunni circles

Shia Islam persecution

• Shia Islam, which holds that the leadership of the Muslim community should have remained within the family of the Prophet Muhammad, faced persecution and marginalization under Umayyad and Abbasid rule
• The Umayyads, in particular, were hostile towards the Shia due to their support for Ali and his descendants during the First Fitna
• Shia revolts, such as the uprising of Husayn ibn Ali at Karbala in 680 CE, were brutally suppressed by Umayyad forces
• Despite this persecution, Shia Islam continued to develop its own theological and legal traditions, with the emergence of the Twelver and Ismaili branches

Dhimmi status for non-Muslims

• Non-Muslims living under Umayyad and Abbasid rule were granted the status of dhimmis, which provided them with protection and religious freedom in exchange for paying the jizya tax
• Dhimmis were allowed to practice their faiths, maintain their places of worship, and govern their communities according to their own laws
• However, dhimmis faced certain restrictions, such as being prohibited from building new places of worship, publicly displaying religious symbols, or proselytizing to Muslims

Spread of Islamic culture

• The Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates facilitated the spread of Islamic culture and values throughout the territories under their control
• The Arabic language, which became the language of administration, literature, and religious scholarship, served as a unifying force across the Islamic world
• Islamic art and architecture, influenced by local traditions and styles, developed distinct characteristics and symbolism
• The pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj) brought Muslims from diverse regions together, fostering a sense of shared identity and cultural exchange

Legacy of the caliphates

• The Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates left a lasting impact on the Islamic world and beyond, shaping the political, cultural, and religious landscape for centuries to come
• Their legacies can be seen in various aspects of Islamic civilization, from art and architecture to the preservation of knowledge and the ongoing Sunni-Shia divide

Islamic art and architecture

• The Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates contributed to the development of a distinct Islamic artistic and architectural tradition
• Umayyad architecture, exemplified by the Dome of the Rock and the Great Mosque of Damascus, featured the use of mosaics, arches, and domes
• Abbasid art and architecture, influenced by Persian and Byzantine styles, introduced new elements such as the muqarnas (honeycomb vaulting) and the use of brick and stucco
• Islamic calligraphy, which became an essential decorative element in religious and secular buildings, reached new heights during the Abbasid period

Preservation of knowledge

• The Abbasid Caliphate, particularly through institutions like the House of Wisdom, played a crucial role in preserving and advancing knowledge from ancient civilizations
• Muslim scholars translated works from Greek, Persian, and Indian sources, ensuring the survival and dissemination of important texts in philosophy, science, and medicine
• The development of paper-making technology, learned from the Chinese, facilitated the spread of knowledge and the growth of libraries across the Islamic world

Influence on later empires

• The political, administrative, and cultural practices of the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates influenced later Islamic empires and dynasties
• The Ottoman Empire, which ruled much of the Middle East and North Africa from the 14th to the early 20th centuries, drew upon the legacy of the caliphates in its governance and cultural patronage
• The Mughal Empire in India and the Safavid Empire in Persia also adopted elements of Umayyad and Abbasid administration, art, and architecture

Ongoing Sunni-Shia divide

• The religious and political divisions between Sunni and Shia Islam, which began during the early Islamic period, were further entrenched during the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates
• The persecution of Shia Muslims under Umayyad rule and the marginalization of Shia communities under the Abbasids contributed to the development of distinct Shia identities and practices
• The Sunni-Shia divide continues to shape the religious and political landscape of the Islamic world, with tensions and conflicts often rooted in the historical legacies of the caliphates