9.1 Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval Processes

Memory formation involves three key processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval. These processes work together to create, maintain, and access our memories. Understanding how they function helps us improve our learning and recall abilities.

Encoding turns sensory information into storable forms, while storage keeps memories over time. Retrieval allows us to access stored information when needed. Factors like interference and decay can affect how well we remember things.

Encoding and Storage Processes

Sensory Memory and Encoding

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• Sensory memory briefly holds sensory information from the environment (sights, sounds, smells, etc.) for a few seconds
• Encoding converts sensory information into a form that can be stored in memory
  • Involves paying attention to and perceiving the information
  • Can involve elaboration, associating the information with existing knowledge
• Levels of processing theory proposes that deeper, more meaningful encoding leads to better retention
  • Shallow processing focuses on superficial characteristics (word shape or sound)
  • Deep processing involves analyzing meaning and connecting to existing knowledge

Rehearsal and Consolidation

• Rehearsal is the process of repeating or practicing information to maintain it in memory
  • Maintenance rehearsal involves repeating information without adding meaning (rote memorization)
  • Elaborative rehearsal involves connecting the information to existing knowledge or creating meaningful associations
    • More effective for long-term retention than maintenance rehearsal
• Consolidation is the process of stabilizing memory traces over time
  • Involves neural changes that strengthen synaptic connections
  • Occurs during sleep, particularly during slow-wave sleep
  • Allows memories to become more resistant to interference or decay

Retrieval Processes

Recall and Recognition

• Retrieval is the process of accessing stored information from memory
• Recall involves actively retrieving information from memory without cues
  • Free recall requires retrieving information in any order
  • Serial recall requires retrieving information in a specific order
• Recognition involves identifying previously encountered information with cues
  • Easier than recall because it provides more retrieval cues
  • Examples include multiple-choice tests or identifying a person from a lineup

Cued Recall

• Cued recall involves retrieving information with the help of cues or hints
  • Cues can be semantic (related to the meaning of the information) or contextual (related to the context in which the information was encoded)
  • Cues help to narrow down the search in memory and provide additional retrieval paths
• State-dependent learning suggests that retrieval is enhanced when the individual's physiological or psychological state matches the state during encoding
  • Example: Information learned while intoxicated may be easier to recall when intoxicated again

Factors Affecting Memory

Interference and Decay

• Interference occurs when other information disrupts the retrieval of target information
  • Retroactive interference happens when new information interferes with the retrieval of previously learned information
    • Example: Difficulty remembering a previous phone number after learning a new one
  • Proactive interference happens when previously learned information interferes with the retrieval of new information
    • Example: Difficulty learning Spanish vocabulary due to interference from French vocabulary learned earlier
• Decay theory proposes that memory traces naturally weaken over time without rehearsal or retrieval
  • Suggests that forgetting occurs due to the passage of time
  • Decay is more likely to occur for information in short-term memory that is not rehearsed or transferred to long-term memory