9.4 Expressionism

Expressionism emerged as a reaction against Impressionism, prioritizing inner emotions over visual reality. Artists used vivid colors, distorted forms, and energetic brushwork to convey psychological states and intense feelings.

The movement originated in Germany and Austria, with two major groups forming: Die Brücke in Dresden and Der Blaue Reiter in Munich. Expressionists sought to evoke moods and ideas rather than depict objective reality, influencing later avant-garde movements.

Origins of Expressionism

• Expressionism emerged in the early 20th century as a modernist movement that prioritized the artist's inner feelings and ideas over replicating reality
• Sought to evoke moods or ideas rather than impressions of the natural world, a departure from Impressionism's focus on capturing fleeting moments of light and color
• Drew upon the introspective and symbolic content of Symbolist art as well as the bold, non-naturalistic color of the Fauvist painters

Reaction against Impressionism

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• Expressionists felt that Impressionism was too superficial in only depicting the appearance of subjects without delving into deeper emotions or meanings
• Rejected Impressionist aesthetics of beauty, harmony, and the "impression" of a moment in favor of deliberate ugliness, dissonant colors, and timeless inner states
• Viewed art as a vehicle for personal expression rather than optical sensations, often portraying anxiety, alienation, or intensity of feeling

Influences from Symbolism & Fauvism

• Incorporated the Symbolists' use of fantasy, mysticism, and personal iconography to create suggestive rather than realistic images
• Inspired by the Fauves' arbitrary colors and spontaneous, instinctive paint application as means of evoking emotions
  • Shared Matisse's aim of liberating color from its descriptive function to become an expressive element in itself

German & Austrian roots

• Originated in Germany and Austria, where it took on an especially provocative and uncompromising form
  • Reflected the social tensions and rebellious spirit of artists in these countries prior to World War I
• Term "Expressionismus" first appeared in 1911 in Czech-born poet Herwarth Walden's Berlin periodical Der Sturm
• Two major Expressionist artist groups formed in Germany: Die Brücke in Dresden and Der Blaue Reiter in Munich

Key characteristics of Expressionism

• Focused on the artist's emotional experience and subjective responses to their subjects, often exploring themes of anxiety, fear, isolation, or passion
• Employed formal distortions, vivid colors, and energetic brushwork to convey inner psychological states or intense moods
• Sought authenticity and directness of expression over aesthetically pleasing or polished results

Subjective & emotional approach

• Shifted emphasis from the objective world to the subjective self, using art to externalize personal feelings and ideas
• Depicted figures and scenes that were not optically realistic but embodied the artist's inner vision or emotional perspective
  • Edvard Munch's The Scream conveys a sense of existential angst through a distorted, skull-like face against a tumultuous red sky
• Frequently explored dark or disturbing subjects like illness, sexuality, or spiritual crises that exposed raw human emotions

Distorted forms for effect

• Deliberately distorted forms and spatial relationships for expressive rather than representational purposes
  • Elongated or exaggerated bodies, masklike faces, jagged lines, and flat or tilted planes heighten emotional intensity
• Used formal distortions to externalize inner psychological experiences or spiritual ideas
  • Ernst Ludwig Kirchner's Berlin street scenes transform urban figures into a frenzy of harsh angles and garish colors, evoking the jarring experience of modern city life

Vivid & non-naturalistic colors

• Employed arbitrary or symbolic color, liberating it from its descriptive function to become an expressive element in itself
  • Vivid, dissonant, or non-naturalistic colors directly convey moods or emotions rather than describing physical reality
• Juxtaposed complementary colors for intensity, applied color in broad areas, and used it to structure compositions
  • Franz Marc used glowing primary colors to imbue his animal paintings with a sense of spiritual purity and harmony

Rough, energetic brushwork

• Painted in a spontaneous, intuitive manner with vigorous, unblended brushstrokes that create a sense of immediacy and raw emotion
  • Thick impasto, jagged lines, and agitated marks on the canvas convey the artist's inner state during the act of painting
• Rough, unfinished appearance reflects Expressionism's valuing of authentic self-expression over technical refinement
  • Oskar Kokoschka's psychologically charged portraits feature visible brushstrokes that seem to pulsate with nervous energy

Notable Expressionist artists

• Expressionism's pioneers worked in Germany and Austria in the early 20th century, establishing two major groups: Die Brücke and Der Blaue Reiter
• Artists are known for their intense, psychologically probing works that used strong colors and distorted forms to convey inner states or emotions
• Expanded Expressionist approaches into various media including painting, printmaking, sculpture, literature, theater, film, and architecture

Ernst Ludwig Kirchner

• German painter and printmaker, co-founder of Die Brücke group in Dresden
• Known for emotionally charged and erotically frank depictions of urban life and the nude figure
  • Frenetic, angular Berlin street scenes capture the psychological experience of the modern city
  • Nudes in nature embody feelings of primeval energy and freedom from social constraints
• Woodcut prints feature flat areas of color, boldly incised lines, and lack of depth, emphasizing emotive power of the medium

Edvard Munch

• Norwegian artist whose work anticipated and influenced German Expressionism
• Explored dark, emotionally charged themes of love, anxiety, jealousy, and death
  • The Scream (1893), his most famous image, depicts an agonized figure against a swirling, tumultuous sky
  • Frieze of Life cycle deals with visceral human experiences of love, loss, and anguish
• Printmaking was central to his work, allowing him to rework and reinterpret his images in various media

Egon Schiele

• Austrian painter and protégé of Gustav Klimt known for emotionally and sexually raw images of the human figure
• Nude self-portraits and figure studies convey a sense of psychological tension and existential isolation
  • Twisted, emaciated bodies rendered in sharp, angular lines against empty backgrounds
  • Explicit depictions of sexuality and taboo subjects like death and pregnancy
• Landscapes and townscapes share the same intensity and distorted forms as his figural works

Oskar Kokoschka

• Austrian artist who helped introduce Expressionism to Vienna through his psychologically penetrating portraits and landscapes
• Portrayed sitters with agitated brushwork, sickly colors, and distorted features that expose their inner emotional states
  • Series of portraits of lover Alma Mahler document his tumultuous feelings as their relationship deteriorated
• War imagery and apocalyptic landscapes reflect the social and political upheavals of early 20th century Europe
  • The Tempest (Bride of the Wind) depicts the artist with Alma Mahler against a stormy, blood-red sky

Die Brücke group

• Group of German Expressionist artists formed in Dresden in 1905, taking their name from Nietzsche's idea of the artist as a "bridge" to a new society
• Included Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Erich Heckel, Karl Schmidt-Rottluff, and Fritz Bleyl, later joined by Emil Nolde and Max Pechstein
• Sought to overthrow traditional academic styles in favor of a new, emotionally authentic art that could transform society

Dresden origins in 1905

• Formed by four architecture students in Dresden who shared a studio and created art communally
  • Aimed to bridge the divide between art and life through a socially engaged, uncompromising creative vision
• Inspired by the "primitive" art of Africa and Oceania as well as late medieval German woodcuts
  • Kirchner visited Dresden ethnological museum to study non-Western art
• Spent summers together in the Moritzburg lakes region outside Dresden, immersing themselves in nature and working en plein air

Kirchner as leader

• Ernst Ludwig Kirchner emerged as the group's dominant artistic personality and unofficial leader
• Articulated Die Brücke's aims in programmatic statements and manifestos
  • 1906 group manifesto, authored by Kirchner, called for a new generation of creators and appreciators to form a bridge to the future
• Produced the largest body of work and exerted a strong influence on the group's other members
  • Boldly colored Berlin street scenes and frenetic nudes in nature became emblematic of Die Brücke's style

Primitive & unrefined style

• Adopted a deliberately crude, unrefined style inspired by the stark simplicity of medieval woodcuts and African or Oceanic carvings
  • Flattened forms, angular contours, and lack of depth or modeling reject academic conventions of representation
• Rough-hewn, jagged woodcuts printed in flat, bold colors became a signature medium
  • Kirchner and Heckel revived the woodcut as a means of authentic, direct expression unencumbered by formal training
• Naive, masklike treatment of faces and raw, slashing brushwork heighten the primitive, unmediated quality of emotion

Woodcut prints & technique

• Woodcut prints were central to Die Brücke's artistic production and became emblematic of their raw, primitive style
  • Used woodcut to create posters, book illustrations, exhibition announcements, and portfolios of original prints
• Carved designs directly into the block with sharp tools, leaving jagged edges and rough gouges visible in the final print
  • Kirchner inked his woodblocks in an irregular manner, allowing for variations in each impression
• Printed with oil-based inks in flat, bold colors that reject traditional chiaroscuro modeling or linear perspective
  • Juxtaposed black keyblock lines with vivid color shapes to create a jarring, discordant effect

Der Blaue Reiter group

• Group of Expressionist artists formed in Munich in 1911 by Wassily Kandinsky and Franz Marc
• More international in membership than Die Brücke, with artists from Germany, Russia, and Switzerland
• Focused on the spiritual and symbolic dimensions of art, exploring abstraction and expressive uses of color

Munich-based movement

• Centered in Munich, where Kandinsky and Marc lived and worked alongside other avant-garde artists
  • Kandinsky taught at the influential Phalanx art school and later the Munich Academy
• Took their name from Kandinsky's 1903 painting Der Blaue Reiter (The Blue Rider), which features a horseman galloping through a rocky landscape
  • Blue rider symbolized a spiritual messenger guiding humanity into a new era
• Held two exhibitions in Munich in 1911 and 1912 showcasing their work alongside that of international avant-garde artists

Kandinsky & Marc as founders

• Russian-born painter Wassily Kandinsky and German artist Franz Marc were the primary founders and theorists of Der Blaue Reiter
  • Shared an interest in the expressive and symbolic potential of color and form to convey spiritual ideas
• Kandinsky wrote influential treatises on the theory of abstract art, including Concerning the Spiritual in Art (1911)
  • Argued that colors and forms could evoke spiritual vibrations in the viewer, with different colors corresponding to different emotions or musical tones
• Marc saw animals as spiritually pure beings and aimed to depict their inner essence through color and form
  • Used glowing, prismatic colors to imbue his animal paintings with a sense of mystical harmony

Spiritual & symbolic themes

• Explored the spiritual and symbolic dimensions of art, seeking to express inner states of being and cosmic truths
  • Kandinsky's lyrically abstract compositions evoke a sense of spiritual transcendence and cosmic harmony
  • Marc's animal paintings use symbolic color to convey the creatures' spiritual essence and connection to nature
• Drew upon ideas from theosophy, anthroposophy, and other mystical philosophies that posited a spiritual dimension to existence
  • Kandinsky's stage compositions and poetry incorporate theosophical concepts of synesthesia and thought-forms

Abstraction & expressive color

• Pioneered the development of abstract art as a means of directly conveying spiritual states and emotions
  • Kandinsky's compositions progressed from stylized landscapes to purely non-representational forms and colors meant to evoke inner experiences
• Used color symbolically and expressively rather than descriptively, with different hues corresponding to specific emotions or ideas
  • Franz Marc assigned blue to masculinity and spirituality, yellow to feminine joy, and red to violence and brutality
• Expressive color, along with abstract forms and spontaneous brushwork, became a vehicle for manifesting inner visions and spiritual ideas
  • August Macke's prismatic watercolors use luminous color alone to create a sense of shimmering, transcendent beauty

Expressionism in other media

• Expressionist artists expanded their approaches into various media beyond painting, including sculpture, architecture, literature, theater, and film
• Brought Expressionist emphasis on subjective experience, emotional intensity, and distortion of form into these different fields
• Created some of the most iconic and influential works of German modernist culture across all artistic disciplines

Expressionist sculpture

• Sculptors used rough, unfinished surfaces, distorted proportions, and emotive gestures to convey inner states or spiritual ideas
  • Ernst Barlach's carved wooden figures feature exaggerated hands and faces that express a sense of human suffering and yearning
  • Wilhelm Lehmbruck elongated and attenuated his figures to create a Gothic effect of spiritualized emotion
• Käthe Kollwitz's anguished bronze and stone sculptures of workers and war victims are socially engaged protests against human oppression and injustice

Expressionist architecture

• Architects used jagged, angular forms, asymmetry, and sculptural ornamentation to create emotionally charged spaces
  • Erich Mendelsohn's Einstein Tower features a dynamic, curving form that seems to embody the swirling forces of the cosmos
  • Hans Poelzig's Grosses Schauspielhaus theater interior creates a cave-like, mystical atmosphere with its stalactite dome and ecstatic lighting effects
• Bruno Taut and the "Crystal Chain" group envisioned utopian glass structures that would promote a spiritual transformation of society

Expressionist literature & poetry

• Writers employed distorted syntax, neologisms, and stream-of-consciousness techniques to evoke extreme psychological states and social alienation
  • Georg Heym's apocalyptic poems use violent, disjunctive imagery to express a sense of urban chaos and existential dread
  • Gottfried Benn's morgue poems clinically dissect the human body and psyche, exposing the primitive drives beneath the veneer of civilization
• Franz Kafka's surreal, nightmarish stories and novels depict individuals trapped in absurd, oppressive bureaucratic systems

Expressionist film & theater

• Filmmakers used chiaroscuro lighting, distorted sets, and exaggerated acting to create a sense of psychological disturbance and unease
  • Robert Wiene's The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari features sharp-angled, disorienting sets that mirror the deranged mental state of the characters
  • F.W. Murnau's Nosferatu employs eerie, shadow-filled cinematography to evoke an atmosphere of supernatural horror
• Playwrights like Frank Wedekind and Georg Kaiser wrote sexually and politically provocative dramas that critiqued the moral hypocrisy and social injustice of bourgeois society

Impact & legacy of Expressionism

• Expressionism had a profound impact on the development of modern art, expanding the boundaries of representation and the role of the artist
• Influenced later 20th century movements that emphasized subjective experience, spontaneous technique, and emotional intensity
• Played a key role in the evolution of German modernist culture, particularly in the tumultuous years of the Weimar Republic

Influence on later movements

• Expressionism's focus on subjective experience and emotional intensity influenced later 20th century movements like Abstract Expressionism and Neo-Expressionism
  • Jackson Pollock and other Abstract Expressionists adopted spontaneous, gestural techniques to convey inner states and unconscious impulses
  • Georg Baselitz and Anselm Kiefer revived Expressionist approaches in their raw, emotionally charged paintings and sculptures
• Expressionist distortions and vivid colors impacted the development of other modernist styles like Futurism, Dada, and Surrealism
  • Futurists adopted Expressionist techniques to convey the dynamism and energy of modern urban life
  • Dadaists and Surrealists used Expressionist distortions to create disturbing, irrational images that subverted bourgeois conventions

Role in German modernism

• Expressionism was a key component of the broader German modernist movement, which encompassed radical innovations in art, architecture, literature, music, and film
  • Reflected the rebellious, anti-establishment spirit of German artists and intellectuals in the early 20th century
• Helped establish Germany as a major center of avant-garde culture, particularly in Berlin during the Weimar Republic years
  • Galleries like Herwarth Walden's Der Sturm promoted Expressionist and other modernist artists through exhibitions and publications
• Expressionist works were among the first to be labeled "degenerate art" and purged from German museums by the Nazi regime in the 1930s

Expressionism after World War I

• Expressionist artists responded to the trauma and disillusionment of World War I with increasingly anguished, politically engaged works
  • Otto Dix and George Grosz created biting, satirical images that critiq