9.4 Gender and sexuality in ancient warfare and conquest

Ancient warfare and conquest profoundly shaped gender roles and sexuality in ancient societies. Men dominated military structures, with women typically relegated to supportive roles. However, exceptions existed, like Scythian women warriors and female military leaders.

War often reinforced traditional gender norms but could also lead to shifts in responsibilities and sexual attitudes. Sexual violence was used as a weapon, leaving lasting impacts on survivors and conquered populations. Gender influenced treatment of the conquered, with long-term effects on cultural practices and social structures.

Gender Roles in Ancient Warfare

Men as Primary Participants

Top images from around the web for Men as Primary Participants

• 

  File:Hoplite fight from Athens Museum.jpg View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Hellenistic armies - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Ancient Greek warfare - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  File:Hoplite fight from Athens Museum.jpg View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Hellenistic armies - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

1 of 3

Top images from around the web for Men as Primary Participants

• 

  File:Hoplite fight from Athens Museum.jpg View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Hellenistic armies - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Ancient Greek warfare - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  File:Hoplite fight from Athens Museum.jpg View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Hellenistic armies - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

1 of 3

• In most ancient societies, men served as soldiers, generals, and military leaders
• Men were often the only ones allowed to participate in combat and warfare
• Societies such as ancient Greece and Rome had military structures that were almost entirely male-dominated
• Men's roles in warfare were closely tied to ideals of masculinity, strength, and courage (Spartan warriors, Roman legionaries)

Women's Limited and Supportive Roles

• Women's roles in ancient military structures were often limited or restricted
• In some cases, women played supportive roles such as providing medical care, preparing food and supplies, or serving as spies or messengers
• In Sparta, women underwent physical training to prepare them for their roles as mothers of strong warriors
• Spartan women were also tasked with managing households and estates while men were away at war

Exceptions to Traditional Gender Roles

• Some ancient societies, such as the Scythians and Sarmatians, had women who participated in combat alongside men
• These women warriors were often mythologized or exoticized by other cultures (Amazons)
• In some cases, women took on leadership roles in military campaigns or served as military strategists (Queen Artemisia I of Caria, Queen Boudicca of the Iceni)
• However, these examples were relatively rare and often viewed as exceptional or unusual in ancient societies

Warfare's Impact on Gender Norms

Reinforcement of Traditional Roles

• Warfare often led to the reinforcement of traditional gender roles, with men as protectors and warriors and women as caregivers and homemakers
• Wartime propaganda utilized gender stereotypes and ideals to mobilize populations and maintain morale (Spartan mother telling her son to return with his shield or on it)
• Societies praised men for their bravery and sacrifice in battle while emphasizing women's roles in supporting the war effort from the home front

Shifts in Responsibilities and Norms

• In times of war, women often took on additional responsibilities, such as managing farms, businesses, and households in the absence of men
• The absence of men due to warfare could lead to shifts in sexual norms, such as an increase in same-sex relationships or changes in attitudes towards adultery
• In some cases, warfare led to the breakdown of traditional gender roles and the emergence of new social structures (Aristophanes' play Lysistrata depicts women going on a sex strike to end the Peloponnesian War)
• The aftermath of war could also bring about changes in gender norms, such as the increased economic and social independence of women in post-war societies (Women in ancient Sparta had more rights and freedoms compared to other Greek city-states)

Sexual Violence as a Weapon of War

Tactics of Terror and Humiliation

• Sexual violence, including rape, sexual slavery, and forced prostitution, was often used as a tactic to terrorize and demoralize enemy populations in ancient warfare
• The conquest of a city or territory was sometimes followed by the mass rape of women as a form of humiliation and assertion of power over the defeated population (The Rape of the Sabine Women in Roman mythology)
• Sexual violence was used to demonstrate the victors' dominance and to shatter the social and moral fabric of the conquered society

Long-term Impact on Survivors

• The aftermath of sexual violence in warfare often led to social stigma, ostracism, and long-term trauma for survivors, particularly women
• Survivors of sexual violence faced challenges reintegrating into their communities and often struggled with the psychological and physical consequences of their experiences
• In some cases, the children born as a result of wartime rape faced discrimination and marginalization within their societies (The Trojan War hero Telephus was said to be the product of the rape of Auge by Heracles)
• The legacy of sexual violence in warfare could have lasting impacts on gender relations and power dynamics within ancient societies

Treatment of Conquered Populations by Gender

Differential Treatment Based on Gender

• Conquered populations were often subjected to different treatment based on their gender and sexuality
• Men of conquered populations were sometimes killed or enslaved, while women were more likely to be taken as captives, forced into marriage, or sexually assaulted (The enslavement of Trojan women after the fall of Troy)
• The treatment of conquered populations could also vary based on factors such as social class, ethnicity, and religious beliefs, with gender and sexuality intersecting with these other aspects of identity

Assimilation and Imposition of Norms

• In some cases, conquered populations were assimilated into the dominant society, with gender and sexual norms imposed upon them
• The conquering society might seek to erase or suppress the cultural practices and traditions of the conquered population, including those related to gender and sexuality
• Assimilation could involve the forced adoption of new gender roles, sexual practices, or marriage customs (Alexander the Great's policy of encouraging his soldiers to marry Persian women)
• The process of assimilation could be met with resistance or adaptation by the conquered population, leading to the emergence of hybrid or syncretic gender and sexual norms

Long-term Impact of Conquest

• The long-term impact of conquest on gender and sexual norms could be significant, with the legacy of violence and trauma shaping social structures and cultural practices for generations
• Conquest could lead to the displacement or diaspora of conquered populations, disrupting traditional gender roles and family structures
• The integration of conquered populations into the dominant society could also bring about changes in gender and sexual norms over time (The influence of Greek culture on Roman society after the Roman conquest of Greece)
• The memory and commemoration of conquest could also shape gender and sexual ideologies, with the glorification of male warriors and the marginalization of female victims (The depiction of the Amazon queen Penthesilea's death at the hands of Achilles in Greek art and literature)