9.3 Mahayana schools and philosophical developments

Mahayana Buddhism introduced new schools of thought, each with unique perspectives on reality and enlightenment. The Madhyamaka school emphasizes emptiness, Yogacara focuses on the mind, and Tathagatagarbha teaches Buddha-nature in all beings.

These schools shaped key Mahayana concepts like emptiness, the nature of reality, and the Bodhisattva ideal. Their influence spread through sutras, universities, and interactions with local traditions, profoundly impacting Buddhist philosophy and practice across Asia.

Mahayana Schools

Main Mahayana schools

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• Madhyamaka school founded by Nagarjuna emphasizes the concept of emptiness (sunyata) and rejects the idea of inherent existence of phenomena
• Yogacara school also known as Cittamatra or "Mind Only" school founded by Asanga and Vasubandhu focuses on the nature of consciousness and the mind and asserts that all phenomena are mental projections (like dreams or illusions)
• Tathagatagarbha school teaches the concept of Buddha-nature suggesting that all sentient beings have the potential for Buddhahood and emphasizes the inherent purity and luminosity of the mind (like a diamond covered in mud)

Key Mahayana philosophical positions

• Madhyamaka asserts the ultimate emptiness of all phenomena while Yogacara emphasizes the mind as the source of all experiences (like a projector creating a movie)
• Tathagatagarbha suggests an inherent Buddha-nature in all beings while Madhyamaka rejects any notion of inherent existence
• Debates on the nature of reality distinguish between conventional truth (everyday reality) and ultimate truth (the true nature of things) and question the role of language and conceptualization in understanding reality

Concept of emptiness in Mahayana

• Emptiness (sunyata) refers to the lack of inherent existence in all phenomena meaning things do not exist independently but arise due to causes and conditions (like a rainbow appearing due to sunlight and water droplets)
• Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka philosophy developed the concept of emptiness through logical arguments refuting the idea of svabhava (inherent nature)
• Understanding emptiness helps overcome attachment and aversion by realizing the interdependent nature of all phenomena (like realizing a mirage is not real water)
• Emptiness is closely related to the concept of dependent origination which states that all phenomena arise due to causes and conditions and nothing exists independently or permanently

Influence of Mahayana philosophy

• The rise of Mahayana sutras and literature such as the Prajnaparamita sutras emphasizing the perfection of wisdom and the Lotus Sutra teaching skillful means (upaya) to help beings
• The development of Bodhisattva ideal emphasizing compassion and the liberation of all beings through the practice of the six perfections (paramitas) like generosity and patience
• The emergence of Buddhist universities and centers of learning such as Nalanda and Vikramashila in India facilitated the transmission of Mahayana teachings to China, Tibet, and other regions
• Mahayana philosophy interacted with and assimilated local religious and philosophical traditions leading to syncretism with Taoism and Confucianism in China and indigenous beliefs in Tibet (Bon) and Japan (Shinto)