Monin-Obukhov similarity theory is a cornerstone of atmospheric boundary layer physics. It provides a framework for understanding turbulent flows near the Earth's surface, using dimensional analysis to describe vertical turbulence structure.
The theory assumes a homogeneous surface layer with constant fluxes and negligible Coriolis effects. It uses dimensionless groups to construct universal functions, leading to the logarithmic wind profile and stability corrections for non-neutral conditions.
Fundamentals of Monin-Obukhov theory
Monin-Obukhov similarity theory provides a framework for understanding turbulent flows in the atmospheric surface layer
Applies dimensional analysis to describe the vertical structure of turbulence near the Earth's surface
Forms the basis for many boundary layer parameterizations used in atmospheric models
Key assumptions
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Surface layer is horizontally homogeneous with constant fluxes
Turbulent fluxes dominate over molecular diffusion
Coriolis force effects are negligible in the surface layer
Flow is statistically stationary over the averaging period
Assumes a flat, uniform surface with no obstacles
Dimensional analysis approach
Uses Buckingham Pi theorem to derive dimensionless groups
Identifies relevant physical parameters (friction velocity, buoyancy flux, height)
Constructs universal functions based on dimensionless ratios
Leads to logarithmic wind profile in neutral conditions
Incorporates stability corrections for non-neutral atmospheres
Obukhov length scale
Fundamental length scale in Monin-Obukhov theory
Defined as L = − u ∗ 3 κ ( g / θ v ) H 0 / ρ c p L = -\frac{u_*^3}{\kappa(g/\theta_v)H_0/\rho c_p} L = − κ ( g / θ v ) H 0 / ρ c p u ∗ 3
Represents the height where buoyancy production equals shear production
Negative values indicate unstable conditions, positive values stable conditions
Magnitude indicates the strength of stability effects
Large |L| suggests near-neutral conditions
Small |L| indicates strong stability influence
Similarity functions
Describe how atmospheric variables deviate from neutral conditions
Express turbulent fluxes and gradients as functions of stability parameter z/L
Enable prediction of vertical profiles in the surface layer
Momentum similarity function
Denoted as ϕm(z/L), describes wind shear in non-neutral conditions
Approaches 1 in neutral conditions (z/L → 0)
Decreases in unstable conditions (z/L < 0) due to enhanced mixing
Increases in stable conditions (z/L > 0) due to suppressed turbulence
Often expressed as ϕm(z/L) = (1 - αz/L)^-β for unstable conditions
Heat similarity function
Represented by ϕh(z/L), describes temperature gradient in non-neutral conditions
Approaches Prandtl number (≈ 0.74) in neutral conditions
Decreases more rapidly than ϕm in unstable conditions
Increases more steeply than ϕm in stable conditions
Can be expressed as ϕh(z/L) = β(1 - γz/L)^-1/2 for unstable conditions
Moisture similarity function
Denoted as ϕq(z/L), describes water vapor gradient in non-neutral conditions
Generally assumed to be equal to ϕh(z/L) in most applications
Reflects similarity between heat and moisture transport in turbulent flows
May deviate from ϕh in very stable or unstable conditions
Crucial for estimating evaporation and latent heat fluxes
Stability parameters
Quantify the relative importance of buoyancy and shear in turbulence production
Used to classify atmospheric stability and determine appropriate similarity functions
Essential for parameterizing turbulent fluxes in numerical models
Richardson number
Dimensionless ratio of buoyancy to shear production of turbulence
Gradient Richardson number defined as R i = g θ ∂ θ / ∂ z ( ∂ U / ∂ z ) 2 Ri = \frac{g}{\theta}\frac{\partial\theta/\partial z}{(\partial U/\partial z)^2} R i = θ g ( ∂ U / ∂ z ) 2 ∂ θ / ∂ z
Negative values indicate unstable conditions, positive values stable conditions
Critical value (Ri ≈ 0.25) often used as threshold for turbulence suppression
Difficult to measure directly due to required vertical gradient measurements
Bulk Richardson number
Simplified version of Richardson number using finite differences
Calculated as R i B = g Δ z Δ θ θ ( Δ U ) 2 Ri_B = \frac{g\Delta z\Delta\theta}{\theta(\Delta U)^2} R i B = θ ( Δ U ) 2 g Δ z Δ θ
Easier to compute from standard meteorological measurements
Used in many numerical weather prediction models
May not accurately represent local stability in strongly stratified layers
Flux Richardson number
Ratio of buoyancy flux to shear production of turbulent kinetic energy
Defined as R i f = ( g / θ ) w ′ θ ′ ‾ u ′ w ′ ‾ ∂ U / ∂ z Ri_f = \frac{(g/\theta)\overline{w'\theta'}}{\overline{u'w'}\partial U/\partial z} R i f = u ′ w ′ ∂ U / ∂ z ( g / θ ) w ′ θ ′
Directly related to turbulent fluxes rather than mean gradients
More physically relevant for describing turbulence dynamics
Challenging to measure due to required eddy covariance measurements
Flux-profile relationships
Connect turbulent fluxes to mean vertical gradients in the surface layer
Form the basis for estimating surface fluxes from routine meteorological measurements
Incorporate stability corrections through universal functions
Momentum flux profile
Relates momentum flux to wind speed gradient
Expressed as κ z u ∗ ∂ U ∂ z = ϕ m ( z / L ) \frac{\kappa z}{u_*}\frac{\partial U}{\partial z} = \phi_m(z/L) u ∗ κ z ∂ z ∂ U = ϕ m ( z / L )
Integrates to logarithmic wind profile with stability correction
Used to estimate surface stress and friction velocity
Crucial for modeling wind profiles in the atmospheric boundary layer
Heat flux profile
Connects sensible heat flux to potential temperature gradient
Given by κ z θ ∗ ∂ θ ∂ z = ϕ h ( z / L ) \frac{\kappa z}{\theta_*}\frac{\partial \theta}{\partial z} = \phi_h(z/L) θ ∗ κ z ∂ z ∂ θ = ϕ h ( z / L )
Integrates to logarithmic temperature profile with stability correction
Allows estimation of surface sensible heat flux
Important for understanding thermal structure of the boundary layer
Moisture flux profile
Links water vapor flux to specific humidity gradient
Formulated as κ z q ∗ ∂ q ∂ z = ϕ q ( z / L ) \frac{\kappa z}{q_*}\frac{\partial q}{\partial z} = \phi_q(z/L) q ∗ κ z ∂ z ∂ q = ϕ q ( z / L )
Assumes similarity between heat and moisture transport
Enables estimation of surface latent heat flux and evaporation
Critical for modeling water vapor distribution and cloud formation
Surface layer scaling
Provides characteristic scales for velocity, temperature, and moisture in the surface layer
Allows normalization of turbulent quantities for universal representation
Facilitates comparison of measurements from different sites and conditions
Velocity scales
Friction velocity (u*) serves as primary velocity scale
Defined as u ∗ = − u ′ w ′ ‾ u_* = \sqrt{-\overline{u'w'}} u ∗ = − u ′ w ′
Represents intensity of turbulent momentum transport
Used to normalize wind speed profiles and turbulence statistics
Typically ranges from 0.1 to 1 m/s in the atmospheric surface layer
Temperature scales
Temperature scale (θ*) characterizes turbulent heat transport
Defined as θ ∗ = − w ′ θ ′ ‾ / u ∗ \theta_* = -\overline{w'\theta'}/u_* θ ∗ = − w ′ θ ′ / u ∗
Used to normalize temperature profiles and heat flux measurements
Negative in unstable conditions, positive in stable conditions
Magnitude typically ranges from 0.01 to 1 K in the surface layer
Moisture scales
Specific humidity scale (q*) represents turbulent moisture transport
Defined analogously to temperature scale: q ∗ = − w ′ q ′ ‾ / u ∗ q_* = -\overline{w'q'}/u_* q ∗ = − w ′ q ′ / u ∗
Used to normalize humidity profiles and latent heat flux measurements
Positive for upward moisture flux (evaporation), negative for downward flux
Magnitude depends on surface moisture availability and atmospheric conditions
Limitations and extensions
Monin-Obukhov theory has known limitations in certain atmospheric conditions
Various extensions and modifications have been proposed to address these issues
Understanding these limitations critical for proper application of the theory
Validity in different conditions
Theory works best in near-neutral and moderately unstable conditions
Breaks down in strongly stable conditions (z/L > 1) due to intermittent turbulence
May not apply in very unstable conditions (free convection limit)
Assumes horizontal homogeneity, limiting applicability over complex terrain
Requires steady-state conditions, challenging in rapidly changing weather
Non-dimensional gradients
Universal functions may vary between sites and stability ranges
Different formulations proposed for stable and unstable conditions
Some researchers suggest separate functions for momentum, heat, and moisture
Ongoing debate about the exact form of stability functions in very stable conditions
Recent studies explore non-local effects on gradient-flux relationships
Roughness sublayer effects
Theory assumes measurements above the roughness sublayer
Roughness sublayer depth varies with surface characteristics (typically 2-5 times canopy height)
Additional corrections needed for flux-profile relationships within roughness sublayer
Affects flux footprint calculations and interpretation of near-surface measurements
Important consideration for flux measurements over forests and urban areas
Applications in atmospheric modeling
Monin-Obukhov theory forms the basis for many surface layer parameterizations
Widely used in numerical weather prediction and climate models
Enables estimation of surface fluxes from routine meteorological observations
Boundary layer parameterization
Provides lower boundary conditions for planetary boundary layer schemes
Used to calculate surface drag, heat flux, and moisture flux
Incorporates stability-dependent eddy diffusivity profiles
Influences vertical mixing and turbulent transport throughout the boundary layer
Critical for accurate representation of near-surface weather conditions
Surface flux estimation
Allows calculation of momentum, heat, and moisture fluxes from standard measurements
Utilizes bulk aerodynamic formulas based on Monin-Obukhov similarity
Requires input of surface roughness length and stability functions
Widely used in agricultural meteorology and hydrology applications
Forms basis for evapotranspiration estimation in land surface models
Turbulence closure schemes
Provides scaling relationships for higher-order turbulence closure models
Used to parameterize turbulent kinetic energy and dissipation rate profiles
Informs eddy viscosity and diffusivity formulations in k-ε and k-ω models
Helps constrain turbulence length scales in mixing length approaches
Crucial for representing subgrid-scale processes in large-scale atmospheric models
Experimental validation
Extensive efforts to validate Monin-Obukhov theory through various experimental approaches
Combination of field measurements, laboratory studies, and numerical simulations
Ongoing research to refine and extend the theory based on observational evidence
Field measurements
Eddy covariance techniques used to directly measure turbulent fluxes
Flux-gradient methods employed to test similarity functions
Tall tower measurements provide vertical profiles in the surface layer
Aircraft observations used to study spatial variability and heterogeneity effects
Long-term datasets (FLUXNET, AmeriFlux) enable validation across diverse ecosystems
Wind tunnel studies
Controlled experiments to isolate specific processes and parameters
Allow systematic variation of stability conditions and surface characteristics
Used to study roughness sublayer effects and complex terrain influences
Provide detailed measurements of turbulence statistics and spectra
Help validate similarity functions and flux-profile relationships
Large eddy simulations
Numerical experiments to study surface layer dynamics at high resolution
Enable investigation of processes difficult to measure in the field
Used to test assumptions of horizontal homogeneity and constant flux layer
Provide insights into non-local effects and internal boundary layer development
Help refine parameterizations for coarser-resolution atmospheric models
Monin-Obukhov vs other theories
Monin-Obukhov theory complements and extends other approaches to boundary layer turbulence
Important to understand relationships and differences between various theoretical frameworks
Each approach has strengths and limitations for different applications
Comparison with K-theory
K-theory assumes downgradient diffusion with constant or height-dependent eddy diffusivity
Monin-Obukhov theory provides stability-dependent scaling for eddy diffusivity
K-theory simpler to implement but lacks universal applicability across stability ranges
Monin-Obukhov approach captures non-local effects through similarity functions
Hybrid approaches combine K-theory with Monin-Obukhov scaling in some models
Relation to mixing length theory
Mixing length theory assumes turbulent eddies have characteristic length scale
Monin-Obukhov theory incorporates stability effects on effective mixing length
Obukhov length serves as stability-dependent limit on mixing length in stable conditions
Mixing length approaches often use Monin-Obukhov scaling in the surface layer
Both theories contribute to development of more advanced turbulence closure schemes
Recent developments
Ongoing research continues to refine and extend Monin-Obukhov similarity theory
New approaches address limitations and expand applicability to complex conditions
Incorporation of advanced measurement techniques and high-resolution modeling
Non-local effects
Recognition of importance of large-scale eddies in unstable conditions
Development of convective velocity scale and mixed-layer similarity
Inclusion of entrainment effects at the top of the boundary layer
Exploration of non-local flux-gradient relationships in strongly unstable conditions
Incorporation of top-down and bottom-up diffusion concepts
Heterogeneous surfaces
Extension of theory to account for surface heterogeneity and patchiness
Development of blending height concept for transitions between surface types
Study of internal boundary layer development over changing surface conditions
Incorporation of footprint models to interpret flux measurements over heterogeneous terrain
Exploration of mosaic approaches for subgrid-scale surface variability in models
Stable boundary layer modifications
Recognition of limitations of traditional theory in very stable conditions
Development of z-less scaling for strongly stable stratification
Incorporation of intermittency and non-stationarity in flux-profile relationships
Exploration of anisotropic turbulence effects in stable boundary layers
Investigation of low-level jets and their impact on surface layer structure