9.3 Sexual violence and exploitation in ancient civilizations

Sexual violence was pervasive in ancient societies, reflecting and reinforcing power imbalances based on gender, class, and citizenship status. Women, enslaved people, and other marginalized groups were especially vulnerable to exploitation, with limited legal recourse.

Laws addressing sexual crimes varied widely between societies, but generally favored elite men. Victims faced significant barriers to reporting and justice, including social stigma, victim-blaming, and the risk of further harm to their reputation and standing.

Sexual Violence in Ancient Societies

Prevalence and Forms of Sexual Violence

Top images from around the web for Prevalence and Forms of Sexual Violence

• 

  A Lasting War: Representing Troy in Ancient Greece and Medieval Europe | Getty Iris View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  File:Comic History of Rome p 010 The Romans walking off with the Sabine Women.jpg - Wikimedia ... View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  File:Herakles hind BM B231.jpg - Wikimedia Commons View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  A Lasting War: Representing Troy in Ancient Greece and Medieval Europe | Getty Iris View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  File:Comic History of Rome p 010 The Romans walking off with the Sabine Women.jpg - Wikimedia ... View original

  Is this image relevant?

1 of 3

Top images from around the web for Prevalence and Forms of Sexual Violence

• 

  A Lasting War: Representing Troy in Ancient Greece and Medieval Europe | Getty Iris View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  File:Comic History of Rome p 010 The Romans walking off with the Sabine Women.jpg - Wikimedia ... View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  File:Herakles hind BM B231.jpg - Wikimedia Commons View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  A Lasting War: Representing Troy in Ancient Greece and Medieval Europe | Getty Iris View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  File:Comic History of Rome p 010 The Romans walking off with the Sabine Women.jpg - Wikimedia ... View original

  Is this image relevant?

1 of 3

• Sexual violence, including rape, sexual assault, and sexual exploitation, was widespread in many ancient societies across different regions and time periods
• In ancient Greece, the rape of women was often portrayed in mythology, literature and art, and historical accounts suggest it was common, especially during wartime
• In ancient Rome, rape was considered a crime, but legal recourse heavily favored male citizens while the rape of enslaved people and non-citizens was prevalent
• Forms of sexual violence included rape as a weapon of war, sexual assault, marital rape, incestual abuse, sexual exploitation of enslaved people and children
• Same-sex sexual assault and exploitation also occurred, though it was less frequently documented than male-female sexual violence

Sexual Exploitation and Power Dynamics

• Pederasty in ancient Greece sometimes involved sexual exploitation of adolescent boys by older men, even when the relationship was socially sanctioned
• Women and girls from lower classes, enslaved populations, and conquered peoples were especially vulnerable to sexual exploitation by men with social and legal power over them
• In many societies, enslaved women were considered the sexual property of their enslavers and could be sexually abused with impunity
• Prostitution was common and was often a last resort for impoverished women with limited options who faced violence and exploitation in many cases
• Men from the upper classes sometimes sexually preyed upon boys and young men from lower classes, using their wealth and influence to coerce them into sexual acts
• Sexual exploitation of boys and men was often tied to other forms of exploitation and enslavement, especially of conquered peoples and foreigners (war captives)

Legal Responses to Sexual Violence

Legal Consequences and Punishment

• Legal and social responses to sexual violence varied significantly between different ancient societies and within societies over time
• In some societies like Babylon and Assyria, laws prescribed harsh punishments like castration or death for sexual crimes, but primarily when committed against respectable women
• Other societies like ancient Egypt had some legal recourse for victims, including financial compensation, but did not prescribe strong criminal punishments
• In ancient Greece and Rome, rape was considered a private matter to be handled by families rather than the state, with laws focused more on the damage done to male honor than the impact on victims

Barriers to Reporting and Justice

• Social stigma around sexual violence meant it often went unreported, with victims sometimes blamed for inviting the assault through their behavior
• Reporting was especially difficult for those with lower social status, like enslaved people, foreigners, or unattached women, who had limited legal rights
• Even when laws existed against sexual crimes, they were inconsistently enforced, especially when the perpetrator was from a higher class than the victim
• Patriarchal legal systems placed the burden of proof on victims and rarely took their testimony alone as sufficient evidence to convict perpetrators
• Victims who came forward risked damage to their reputation and social standing, deterring many from seeking legal recourse

Gender, Class, and Power in Exploitation

Vulnerability of Marginalized Groups

• Sexual exploitation in ancient societies was deeply tied to power imbalances related to gender, social class, enslavement, and citizenship status
• Women, especially those from lower classes or enslaved populations, were most vulnerable to sexual exploitation due to their lack of social and legal power
• Foreigners, war captives, and colonized peoples were also at high risk of sexual exploitation by conquering armies and occupying powers
• Children, particularly those who were orphaned, enslaved, or from impoverished families, were vulnerable to sexual abuse and exploitation by adults

Intersection with Other Forms of Oppression

• Sexual exploitation often intersected with other forms of labor exploitation, with enslaved women forced to provide sexual services in addition to physical labor
• In societies with slavery, the sexual abuse of enslaved people by their enslavers was widespread and normalized as a tool of domination and control
• Prostitution and sexual exploitation of lower-class women and girls was tied to their economic vulnerability and lack of other options for survival
• Sexual violence against marginalized groups served to reinforce hierarchies of power along the lines of gender, class, ethnicity, and citizenship status
• Impunity for upper-class perpetrators of sexual exploitation upheld the entitlement and privileges of the elite at the expense of the oppressed

Impact of Sexual Violence on Victims

Physical and Mental Health Consequences

• Sexual violence had severe and lasting impacts on victims' physical, mental, and social well-being in ancient societies, though this was rarely a priority for legal or social systems
• Physically, victims faced the risk of injury, sexually transmitted infections, and pregnancy from rape, with medical care difficult to access, especially for lower-class victims
• Psychologically, victims likely experienced trauma, shame, and fear, which could be isolating and persist long-term in societies that stigmatized victims
• When victims became pregnant from rape, they faced additional stigma and challenges in caring for the child alone, sometimes leading to infanticide

Social and Familial Repercussions

• Socially, sexual violence could greatly damage victims' reputations, prospects for marriage, and social standing in societies that placed a high value on sexual purity for women
• The families and communities of victims also suffered from the impacts of sexual violence, including financial burdens, social ostracization, and cycles of trauma
• Victim-blaming attitudes and the normalization of sexual violence made it difficult for victims to seek support or justice, compounding their trauma
• At a societal level, pervasive sexual violence upheld systems of domination and exploitation along the lines of gender, class, and ethnic hierarchies
• The lack of consequences for perpetrators and the silencing of victims' experiences enabled the intergenerational transmission of trauma and violence