9.3 Termination and relocation policies

The U.S. government's termination and relocation policies in the 1950s-60s aimed to end federal recognition of tribes and move Native Americans to urban areas. These policies stripped tribes of legal status, land, and resources, disrupting communities and eroding cultural ties.

The consequences were severe. Native communities faced increased poverty, homelessness, and cultural loss. However, resistance emerged through legal challenges, community organizing, and cultural revitalization efforts, leading to the restoration of federal recognition for some tribes.

Termination and Relocation Policies

Termination and relocation policies

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• Termination Policy (1953-1968)
  • House Concurrent Resolution 108 declared end of federal obligations to tribes
  • Aimed to end federal recognition of tribes stripped Native Americans of legal status
  • Withdrawal of federal support and services left tribes without essential resources
  • Transfer of tribal lands to private ownership disrupted communal land practices
• Indian Relocation Act of 1956
  • Encouraged Native Americans to move to urban areas through financial incentives
  • Offered job training and assistance often inadequate for urban life challenges
  • Aimed to assimilate Native Americans into mainstream society eroding cultural ties
• California Rancheria Termination Act (1958)
  • Targeted 41 California rancherias for termination affecting thousands of Native Americans
  • Dissolution of tribal governments dismantled traditional leadership structures
  • Distribution of tribal assets to individual members fragmented communal resources

Rationale and impact of policies

• Rationale for Termination
  • Reduce federal expenditures on Native American affairs cutting costs by millions
  • Promote assimilation and integration into American society erasing cultural distinctions
  • Eliminate "special treatment" of Native Americans based on misguided equality concept
• Rationale for Relocation
  • Alleviate poverty on reservations by moving people to urban job markets
  • Provide better economic opportunities in urban areas (manufacturing, service industries)
  • Reduce dependence on federal assistance by encouraging self-sufficiency
• Impact on California tribes
  • Loss of federal recognition for many tribes stripped legal protections
  • Fragmentation of tribal communities scattered members across urban areas
  • Reduction in access to healthcare and education services increased health disparities
  • Erosion of tribal sovereignty and self-governance weakened political autonomy

Consequences and Resistance

Consequences for Native communities

• Social consequences
  • Disruption of traditional family and community structures separated extended families
  • Increased isolation and loss of social support networks in urban environments
  • Higher rates of homelessness and substance abuse in urban areas due to cultural dislocation
• Economic consequences
  • Loss of tribal lands and resources diminished economic base
  • Increased poverty rates due to inadequate job training and discrimination
  • Limited access to employment opportunities on terminated rancherias created economic deserts
• Cultural consequences
  • Erosion of traditional languages and practices as generations disconnected
  • Disconnection from ancestral lands and sacred sites impacted spiritual practices
  • Challenges in maintaining tribal identity and cultural continuity in urban settings

Resistance to government policies

• Legal challenges
  • Lawsuits against termination actions (Tillie Hardwick case)
  • Efforts to regain federal recognition through courts and legislation
• Community organizing
  • Formation of pan-Indian organizations in urban areas (American Indian Movement)
  • Establishment of cultural centers and support networks (Indian Centers)
• Cultural revitalization movements
  • Language preservation initiatives (master-apprentice programs)
  • Revival of traditional ceremonies and practices (sweat lodges, powwows)
• Political activism
  • Participation in broader Native American civil rights movement (Alcatraz occupation)
  • Advocacy for policy changes and restoration of tribal status through lobbying efforts

Long-term effects on tribal sovereignty

• Restoration of federal recognition
  • Reversal of termination for some tribes through legal action restored rights
  • Congressional acts to restore recognition and lands (e.g., Federally Recognized Indian Tribe List Act)
• Ongoing challenges
  • Difficulty in rebuilding tribal infrastructure and economies after years of neglect
  • Intergenerational trauma and cultural loss impacting community well-being
• Strengthened tribal sovereignty movements
  • Increased focus on self-determination and self-governance led to tribal constitutions
  • Development of tribal governance structures (tribal courts, environmental regulations)
• Cultural resurgence
  • Renewed interest in traditional practices and languages among younger generations
  • Establishment of tribal museums and cultural education programs preserving heritage
• Impact on tribal identity
  • Redefinition of tribal membership criteria balancing blood quantum and lineage
  • Balancing traditional and contemporary aspects of Native identity in modern context