9.3 Texas independence and annexation

Texas independence and annexation marked a pivotal period in U.S. expansion. Anglo-American settlers in Mexican Texas clashed with the government, leading to revolution and the creation of an independent republic in 1836.

The Republic of Texas faced challenges as a sovereign nation. Ultimately, the U.S. annexed Texas in 1845, sparking tensions with Mexico and debates over slavery that contributed to the Mexican-American War and westward expansion.

Texas as a Mexican state

• After gaining independence from Spain in 1821, Mexico included the territory of Texas as part of the state of Coahuila y Tejas
• Mexico encouraged settlement in the sparsely populated northern frontier regions to create a buffer against encroaching American interests and hostile Native American tribes

Empresarios and Anglo-American settlers

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• Mexico granted land to empresarios, who were tasked with recruiting settlers to develop the land
• Stephen F. Austin, known as the "Father of Texas," was the most successful empresario, establishing the first Anglo-American colony in Texas
• Anglo-American settlers, primarily from the southern United States, were drawn to Texas by the availability of inexpensive land and the opportunity for economic advancement
• Many settlers brought enslaved African Americans with them to work on cotton plantations, despite Mexico's prohibition of slavery

Tensions with Mexican government

• Cultural differences between Anglo-American settlers and the Mexican government led to growing tensions
• Settlers resisted learning Spanish, adopting Catholicism, and adhering to Mexican laws and customs
• Mexico's centralization policies, such as the abolition of slavery and increased taxation, further strained relations with the predominantly pro-slavery Anglo-American population
• The Turtle Bayou Resolutions in 1832 expressed settlers' grievances against the Mexican government and called for adherence to the Mexican Constitution of 1824

Texas Revolution

• Tensions between Anglo-American settlers and the Mexican government escalated into open rebellion in 1835
• The Texas Revolution, also known as the Texas War of Independence, lasted from October 1835 to April 1836

Siege of the Alamo

• In February 1836, Mexican President Antonio López de Santa Anna led a siege against the Alamo mission in San Antonio
• A small group of Texian defenders, including James Bowie and Davy Crockett, held out for 13 days against a much larger Mexican force
• The Alamo fell on March 6, 1836, with all defenders killed, but their resistance bought time for the Texian army to gather strength and became a symbol of heroic sacrifice

Battle of San Jacinto

• On April 21, 1836, the Texian army, led by General Sam Houston, launched a surprise attack on Santa Anna's forces at the Battle of San Jacinto
• The Texians decisively defeated the Mexican army in just 18 minutes, capturing Santa Anna and forcing him to sign the Treaties of Velasco, which granted Texas its independence

Establishment of Republic of Texas

• With the victory at San Jacinto, Texas declared itself an independent republic on March 2, 1836
• The Republic of Texas, also known as the Lone Star Republic, was recognized by the United States, France, and other nations
• The new republic faced challenges in establishing a stable government, defending its borders, and managing relations with Mexico, which refused to acknowledge Texas independence

Lone Star Republic

• The Republic of Texas existed as an independent nation from 1836 to 1845
• During this period, Texas faced political, economic, and diplomatic challenges as it sought to establish itself on the international stage

Sam Houston's presidency

• Sam Houston, the hero of the Texas Revolution, served as the first and third president of the Republic of Texas
• Houston's leadership was instrumental in navigating the early years of the republic, including establishing diplomatic relations with other nations and managing tensions with Mexico
• He advocated for annexation to the United States, believing it would provide greater stability and security for Texas

Challenges of independence

• The Republic of Texas struggled with a lack of funds, as it had limited revenue sources and difficulty securing loans from foreign nations
• Defending the republic's borders against Mexican incursions and Native American raids strained military resources
• Political instability, with frequent changes in leadership and competing factions, hindered effective governance

Push for U.S. annexation

• Many Texians, including Sam Houston, favored annexation to the United States for economic and security reasons
• However, the U.S. initially hesitated to annex Texas due to concerns over the legality of its independence, potential war with Mexico, and the issue of slavery
• The threat of British influence in Texas and the desire to expand slavery into new territories eventually led to increased support for annexation in the U.S.

U.S. annexation of Texas

• After years of debate and political maneuvering, the United States annexed Texas in 1845
• The annexation process was complicated by sectional tensions within the U.S. and the potential for war with Mexico

Slavery and sectional tensions

• The annexation of Texas inflamed sectional tensions between the North and South in the United States
• Southerners viewed Texas as an opportunity to expand slavery and bolster their political power, while many Northerners opposed the spread of slavery into new territories
• The Missouri Compromise of 1820, which had maintained a balance between free and slave states, was challenged by the annexation of Texas

Joint resolution vs treaty

• President John Tyler initially pursued annexation through a treaty, which required a two-thirds majority in the Senate for approval
• When the treaty failed to gain sufficient support, Tyler and his allies turned to a joint resolution of Congress, which required only a simple majority in both houses
• The joint resolution method was controversial, as it bypassed the traditional treaty-making process and raised questions about the constitutionality of annexation

Boundary disputes with Mexico

• The annexation of Texas reignited boundary disputes between the United States and Mexico
• Texas claimed the Rio Grande as its southern border, while Mexico insisted on the Nueces River as the boundary
• These competing claims, along with other factors such as the U.S. doctrine of Manifest Destiny, contributed to the outbreak of the U.S.-Mexican War in 1846

U.S.-Mexican War

• The U.S.-Mexican War, fought between 1846 and 1848, was a transformative event in North American history
• The conflict resulted in significant territorial gains for the United States and had lasting consequences for both nations

Causes and key battles

• The immediate cause of the war was the U.S. annexation of Texas, which Mexico considered to be a rebel province
• Other factors included the U.S. doctrine of Manifest Destiny, which justified westward expansion, and President James K. Polk's desire to acquire California and other Mexican territories
• Key battles included the Battle of Palo Alto, the Battle of Monterrey, and the Battle of Buena Vista, which showcased the superior military technology and tactics of the U.S. forces

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

• The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed on February 2, 1848, officially ended the U.S.-Mexican War
• Under the terms of the treaty, Mexico ceded a vast territory to the United States, including present-day California, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming
• In exchange, the U.S. agreed to pay Mexico $15 million and assume$3.25 million in claims against Mexico by U.S. citizens

Territorial gains for U.S.

• The U.S.-Mexican War resulted in the largest territorial acquisition in U.S. history, with the country gaining over 500,000 square miles of land
• The newly acquired territories, known as the Mexican Cession, nearly doubled the size of the United States and extended its reach to the Pacific Ocean
• The territorial gains fueled debates over the expansion of slavery, as Northerners and Southerners clashed over whether the new territories would be free or slave states, setting the stage for the Civil War