9.2 Civil Rights Activism and Legislation

The Civil Rights Movement saw activists and organizations fighting for racial equality through legal challenges, nonviolent protests, and grassroots organizing. Key events like the Montgomery Bus Boycott and the March on Washington pushed for change, while leaders like Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X shaped the movement's direction.

Civil rights legislation, including the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, dismantled legal segregation and protected voting rights. These laws, along with federal enforcement and Supreme Court decisions, marked significant progress in the struggle for racial equality in America.

Civil Rights Movement Leaders and Events

Key Organizations and Leaders

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• The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), founded in 1909, fought for civil rights through legal challenges
  • Notably, the Brown v. Board of Education case in 1954 challenged school segregation
• The Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), led by Martin Luther King Jr., coordinated nonviolent protests and boycotts
  • Organized the Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-1956) protesting segregated buses
  • Coordinated the Birmingham Campaign (1963) against segregation in Birmingham, Alabama
• The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), formed in 1960, organized sit-ins, freedom rides, and voter registration drives
  • Key leaders included John Lewis and Stokely Carmichael
  • Focused on grassroots organizing and direct action
• The Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), founded in 1942, participated in freedom rides and the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom (1963)
  • Challenged segregation in interstate travel through Freedom Rides
• The Nation of Islam, led by Elijah Muhammad and Malcolm X, advocated for black nationalism and self-determination
  • Emphasized black pride, self-reliance, and separation from white society

Significant Events

• The Little Rock Nine (1957) integrated Little Rock Central High School in Arkansas amidst violent opposition
• The Greensboro sit-ins (1960) protested segregation at lunch counters in Greensboro, North Carolina
• The Freedom Rides (1961) challenged segregation in interstate buses and terminals
• The March on Washington (1963) brought together over 200,000 people to demand civil rights legislation
  • Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his famous "I Have a Dream" speech
• The Freedom Summer (1964) was a voter registration drive in Mississippi met with violent resistance
• The Selma to Montgomery marches (1965) protested for voting rights and led to the Voting Rights Act of 1965

Effectiveness of Civil Rights Strategies

Nonviolent Resistance and Civil Disobedience

• Nonviolent resistance, as advocated by Martin Luther King Jr. and inspired by Mahatma Gandhi, aimed to expose the injustice of segregation and racism through peaceful protests, sit-ins, and boycotts
  • Demonstrated moral strength and courage in the face of violence and oppression
  • Garnered national and international support by highlighting the brutality of segregationists
• Civil disobedience involved deliberately violating unjust laws to draw attention to their unfairness and prompt change
  • Exemplified by the Greensboro sit-ins protesting segregated lunch counters
  • Freedom Rides challenged segregation in interstate travel
• These strategies put pressure on the federal government to intervene and pass legislation protecting civil rights
  • Led to the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965

Criticisms and Alternative Approaches

• Some activists, such as Malcolm X and Stokely Carmichael, criticized nonviolent resistance as too slow and ineffective
  • Advocated for more assertive approaches, such as black nationalism and Black Power
  • Emphasized self-determination, self-defense, and pride in black identity
• The Black Power movement gained traction in the late 1960s, particularly among younger activists
  • Stokely Carmichael popularized the term during the Meredith March Against Fear in 1966
  • The Black Panther Party, founded in 1966, embodied the Black Power philosophy through its Ten-Point Program and community organizing

Impact of Civil Rights Legislation

Civil Rights Act of 1964

• Prohibited discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in public accommodations, employment, and federally funded programs
  • Title II banned discrimination in public accommodations (restaurants, hotels, theaters)
  • Title VII prohibited employment discrimination and established the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to investigate complaints
• Dismantled the legal framework of segregation in public spaces and employment
• Laid the groundwork for further anti-discrimination legislation

Voting Rights Act of 1965

• Outlawed discriminatory voting practices (literacy tests, poll taxes) used to disenfranchise African Americans
  • Section 2 prohibited any voting practice or procedure that discriminated based on race or color
  • Section 5 required certain states and local governments with a history of voting discrimination to obtain federal preclearance before changing voting laws or practices
• Ensured equal voting rights for African Americans and increased their political participation
  • Mississippi's black voter registration increased from 6.7% in 1964 to 59.8% in 1967
• Paved the way for the election of African American officials at all levels of government

Long-term Impact

• These laws were crucial in dismantling the legal framework of segregation and ensuring equal rights for African Americans
• Set the stage for further civil rights advancements
  • Fair Housing Act of 1968 prohibited discrimination in housing
  • Civil Rights Act of 1991 strengthened employment discrimination protections
• Inspired other social movements (women's rights, LGBTQ+ rights, disability rights) to pursue legal protections and equality

Federal Role in Civil Rights

Presidential Actions

• President Dwight D. Eisenhower enforced the desegregation of Little Rock Central High School in 1957 by sending federal troops to protect the Little Rock Nine
  • Demonstrated the federal government's commitment to upholding court-ordered desegregation
• President John F. Kennedy supported the civil rights movement through speeches and proposed legislation
  • Gave a televised address in 1963 calling civil rights a moral issue and introducing comprehensive civil rights legislation
  • Much of his proposed legislation was passed after his assassination
• President Lyndon B. Johnson played a crucial role in passing the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965
  • Used his political skills and the momentum generated by the civil rights movement to secure passage of the legislation
  • Signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 into law on July 2, 1964, and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 on August 6, 1965

Department of Justice and Federal Agencies

• The Department of Justice, led by Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, actively supported civil rights
  • Protected protesters, investigated violations, and filed lawsuits against discriminatory practices
  • Sent U.S. Marshals to protect Freedom Riders and enforce desegregation
• The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) was established by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to investigate and enforce employment discrimination laws
• The Commission on Civil Rights, created by the Civil Rights Act of 1957, investigated and reported on civil rights violations

Supreme Court Decisions

• The Supreme Court issued landmark rulings that struck down segregation and discrimination
  • Brown v. Board of Education (1954) declared school segregation unconstitutional
  • Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States (1964) upheld the constitutionality of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
  • Loving v. Virginia (1967) struck down state laws banning interracial marriage

Limitations and Inconsistencies

• The federal government's commitment to civil rights was not always consistent
  • FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover conducted surveillance on civil rights leaders, including Martin Luther King Jr.
  • Some presidents, such as Dwight D. Eisenhower and John F. Kennedy, were initially reluctant to fully support the civil rights movement
• Enforcement of civil rights legislation faced challenges, particularly in the Deep South
  • Some states and local governments resisted desegregation and voter registration efforts
  • Violence against civil rights activists persisted, as exemplified by the murders of Medgar Evers, James Chaney, Andrew Goodman, and Michael Schwerner