🗽US History Unit 2 – The Atlantic World: Early Globalization

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Globalization: Process of interaction and integration among people, companies, and governments worldwide
• Columbian Exchange: Widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, diseases, and ideas between the Old World and the New World in the 15th and 16th centuries
  • Included exchange of crops (maize, potatoes, tomatoes), livestock (horses, cattle, pigs), and diseases (smallpox, measles)
• Mercantilism: Economic theory and practice that emphasizes the importance of a nation's exports exceeding its imports to increase its wealth and power
• Triangular Trade: Trade routes that connected Europe, Africa, and the Americas, involving the exchange of manufactured goods, raw materials, and enslaved people
• Transatlantic Slave Trade: Forced migration of millions of Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas as part of the triangular trade
• Colonialism: Practice of establishing political and economic control over another country or territory
  • European powers (Spain, Portugal, England, France) established colonies in the Americas, Africa, and Asia

Historical Context and Background

• Age of Exploration: Period from the early 15th century to the early 17th century when European nations sponsored voyages of exploration
  • Driven by desire for new trade routes, wealth, and territorial expansion
• Renaissance: Cultural and intellectual movement that began in Italy in the 14th century and spread throughout Europe
  • Emphasized humanism, individualism, and a revival of classical learning
• Protestant Reformation: Religious movement in the 16th century that challenged the authority of the Catholic Church and led to the establishment of Protestant denominations
• Rise of European Nation-States: Consolidation of power and centralization of authority in European countries (England, France, Spain) during the 15th and 16th centuries
• Advancements in Navigation: Improvements in shipbuilding, cartography, and navigational instruments (astrolabe, magnetic compass) enabled longer sea voyages and exploration

Major Players and Regions

• Christopher Columbus: Italian explorer who sailed across the Atlantic Ocean in 1492, leading to the European discovery and colonization of the Americas
• Vasco da Gama: Portuguese explorer who became the first European to reach India by sea in 1498, establishing a direct trade route between Europe and Asia
• Ferdinand Magellan: Portuguese explorer who led the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe from 1519 to 1522
• Hernán Cortés: Spanish conquistador who led the conquest of the Aztec Empire in Mexico from 1519 to 1521
• Francisco Pizarro: Spanish conquistador who led the conquest of the Inca Empire in Peru from 1532 to 1572
• West Africa: Region that became a major source of enslaved people for the transatlantic slave trade
  • Included kingdoms and empires (Kongo, Benin, Oyo) that participated in and were affected by the slave trade
• Caribbean: Region that became a center of European colonization and plantation agriculture, relying heavily on enslaved African labor
• Mesoamerica: Region that included the Aztec and Maya civilizations, which were conquered by the Spanish in the 16th century
• Andes: Region that included the Inca Empire, which was conquered by the Spanish in the 16th century

Trade Routes and Economic Impacts

• Silk Roads: Ancient trade routes that connected East Asia and the Mediterranean, facilitating the exchange of goods, ideas, and cultures
• Indian Ocean Trade: Network of maritime trade routes that connected East Africa, the Middle East, South Asia, and Southeast Asia
  • Dominated by Arab and Indian merchants before the arrival of Europeans
• Atlantic Trade: Network of trade routes that connected Europe, Africa, and the Americas, emerging in the late 15th century
  • Included the triangular trade and the transatlantic slave trade
• Plantation Economy: Economic system based on large-scale agricultural production using enslaved labor, particularly in the Caribbean and the American South
  • Focused on cash crops (sugar, tobacco, cotton) for export to Europe
• Mercantilism: Economic policy that aimed to maximize a nation's wealth through the accumulation of gold and silver, the establishment of colonies, and the maintenance of a positive balance of trade
  • Led to competition and conflicts among European powers for control of trade routes and colonies

Cultural Exchange and Interactions

• Mestizaje: Process of cultural and biological mixing between indigenous peoples, Europeans, and Africans in the Americas
  • Resulted in the emergence of new racial and cultural identities (mestizos, mulattos)
• Religious Conversion: Efforts by European missionaries (Catholic and Protestant) to convert indigenous peoples and enslaved Africans to Christianity
  • Led to the spread of Christianity in the Americas and the suppression of indigenous religions
• Linguistic Exchange: Adoption of European languages (Spanish, Portuguese, English, French) by indigenous peoples and enslaved Africans in the Americas
  • Contributed to the development of creole languages (Haitian Creole, Papiamento)
• Syncretism: Blending of different cultural and religious traditions, particularly in the Americas
  • Evident in the emergence of syncretic religions (Santería, Candomblé, Vodou)
• Artistic Influences: Exchange of artistic styles and techniques between Europe, Africa, and the Americas
  • Reflected in the development of new art forms (colonial architecture, religious art)

Technological Advancements

• Caravel: Small, maneuverable sailing ship developed by the Portuguese in the 15th century
  • Enabled longer voyages and exploration of the African coast and the Atlantic Ocean
• Astrolabe: Navigational instrument used to determine latitude by measuring the angle of the sun or stars above the horizon
• Magnetic Compass: Navigational instrument that uses a magnetized needle to indicate the direction of magnetic north
  • Improved maritime navigation and enabled more accurate long-distance travel
• Gunpowder Weapons: Introduction of firearms (muskets, cannons) by Europeans in their conquests and conflicts with indigenous peoples
  • Contributed to the military advantage of Europeans over indigenous populations
• Printing Press: Invention by Johannes Gutenberg in the 15th century that revolutionized the dissemination of knowledge and ideas
  • Facilitated the spread of information about the New World and the ideas of the Renaissance and the Reformation

Social and Demographic Changes

• Population Decline: Dramatic decrease in indigenous populations in the Americas due to the introduction of European diseases (smallpox, measles, influenza)
  • Estimated that 90% of the indigenous population in the Americas died within a century of European contact
• Forced Labor Systems: Implementation of various forms of forced labor (encomienda, mita, slavery) by Europeans to exploit the labor of indigenous peoples and enslaved Africans
  • Resulted in the displacement and oppression of indigenous communities and the brutal treatment of enslaved Africans
• Urbanization: Growth of cities and towns in the Americas as centers of colonial administration, trade, and cultural exchange
  • Examples include Mexico City, Lima, Havana, and Salvador
• Social Stratification: Development of hierarchical societies in the Americas based on race, class, and gender
  • Europeans at the top, followed by creoles (American-born Europeans), mestizos, indigenous peoples, and enslaved Africans at the bottom
• Gender Roles: Changes in gender roles and relations due to the demographic imbalance between European men and women in the colonies
  • Resulted in the emergence of mixed-race families and the exploitation of indigenous and African women

Legacy and Long-term Effects

• Economic Interdependence: Establishment of global trade networks and economic interdependence between Europe, Africa, and the Americas
  • Persistence of unequal economic relationships and the exploitation of resources from the Global South
• Colonial Legacies: Enduring impact of colonialism on the political, economic, and social structures of former colonies
  • Evident in the persistence of racial and economic inequalities, political instability, and cultural tensions
• Cultural Hybridization: Emergence of new cultural forms and identities as a result of the mixing of European, African, and indigenous cultures
  • Reflected in the diversity of languages, religions, music, art, and cuisine in the Americas
• Environmental Changes: Transformation of landscapes and ecosystems in the Americas due to the introduction of new plants, animals, and agricultural practices
  • Deforestation, soil erosion, and loss of biodiversity as a result of plantation agriculture and resource extraction
• Globalization of Capitalism: Expansion of capitalism as a global economic system, driven by the accumulation of wealth and the exploitation of labor and resources
  • Persistence of economic inequalities and the concentration of wealth in the hands of a few