🗽US History Unit 23 – Americans and the Great War, 1914–1919

Background and Causes

• Tensions between European powers escalated due to nationalism, imperialism, and a complex system of alliances
• Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary by a Serbian nationalist on June 28, 1914 triggered the outbreak of World War I
• Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, leading to a chain reaction of declarations of war among European nations
• Central Powers consisted of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire
• Allied Powers included France, Great Britain, Russia, and later Italy and the United States
• Advancements in military technology (machine guns, artillery, and chemical weapons) contributed to the unprecedented scale and brutality of the conflict
• Trench warfare on the Western Front resulted in a prolonged stalemate and massive casualties

American Neutrality (1914-1917)

• President Woodrow Wilson declared the United States neutral at the outbreak of the war in 1914
• Wilson believed that the US should remain impartial and serve as a mediator to bring about a peaceful resolution
• American public opinion was divided
  • Some favored the Allied Powers due to cultural and historical ties to Great Britain and France
  • Others, particularly German-Americans and Irish-Americans, sympathized with the Central Powers
• US maintained trade relations with both sides, although the British naval blockade limited trade with Germany
• Germany's use of unrestricted submarine warfare, which targeted merchant ships and resulted in the loss of American lives (Lusitania incident in 1915), strained US-German relations

Shifting Public Opinion

• Continued German submarine attacks on merchant ships, including the sinking of the Lusitania in 1915, which killed 128 Americans, began to shift public opinion against Germany
• Zimmermann Telegram, intercepted by British intelligence in 1917, revealed Germany's attempt to ally with Mexico against the US, further turning American sentiment against Germany
• Increasing economic ties with the Allied Powers, particularly through loans and war materiel sales, led to a greater alignment of American interests with the Allies
• Reports of German atrocities in Belgium and the use of chemical weapons also influenced American public opinion
• Progressives and interventionists, such as former President Theodore Roosevelt, advocated for US involvement in the war to protect democracy and promote a new world order

US Entry into the War

• Germany's resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare in early 1917, which targeted American ships, provoked the US to sever diplomatic ties with Germany
• Zimmermann Telegram's revelation in March 1917 intensified calls for US intervention
• President Wilson sought a "peace without victory" and attempted to mediate a settlement between the warring parties
• Germany's continued aggression and the failure of diplomatic efforts led Wilson to request a declaration of war from Congress
• On April 6, 1917, the US officially declared war on Germany, citing the need to protect American interests, defend democracy, and promote a just peace

Mobilization on the Home Front

• President Wilson created the War Industries Board to coordinate wartime production and allocate resources
• Food Administration, led by Herbert Hoover, encouraged conservation and increased agricultural output to support the war effort
• Fuel Administration regulated the distribution and consumption of coal and oil
• Liberty Loan drives and war bond campaigns helped finance the war effort
• Espionage Act of 1917 and Sedition Act of 1918 restricted free speech and targeted dissent
  • Used to prosecute individuals who opposed the war or criticized the government
• Committee on Public Information, headed by George Creel, conducted propaganda campaigns to promote patriotism and support for the war
• Women entered the workforce in greater numbers to fill labor shortages caused by the draft
• African Americans, despite facing discrimination and segregation, contributed to the war effort through military service and labor

American Military Involvement

• American Expeditionary Forces (AEF), led by General John J. Pershing, began arriving in France in June 1917
• AEF initially served in a support role, providing reinforcements and supplies to Allied forces
• Selective Service Act of 1917 instituted a draft, raising a large army of over 4 million men
• US troops played a significant role in the Meuse-Argonne Offensive (September-November 1918), the largest and bloodiest battle in American history
  • Helped to break the German lines and contributed to the Allied victory
• American naval forces assisted in countering German submarine warfare in the Atlantic
• US involvement boosted Allied morale and provided a fresh influx of manpower and resources, helping to turn the tide of the war

Impact on American Society

• Wartime mobilization led to increased government control over the economy and society
• Women's roles expanded as they entered the workforce and contributed to the war effort
  • Helped to build support for the women's suffrage movement, which culminated in the passage of the 19th Amendment in 1920
• African Americans' participation in the war effort heightened their expectations for equality and civil rights
  • Laid the groundwork for the Harlem Renaissance and future civil rights movements
• The war accelerated the Great Migration of African Americans from the South to the North, seeking job opportunities and escaping discrimination
• Increased hostility and discrimination against German-Americans and immigrants
• The 1918 influenza pandemic, exacerbated by wartime conditions, claimed millions of lives worldwide and had a profound impact on American society

Aftermath and Legacy

• Armistice on November 11, 1918, ended the fighting on the Western Front
• Paris Peace Conference in 1919 led to the Treaty of Versailles, which imposed harsh terms on Germany
  • President Wilson's Fourteen Points, which called for self-determination, open diplomacy, and the creation of the League of Nations, influenced the peace negotiations
• US Senate rejected the Treaty of Versailles and US membership in the League of Nations, reflecting a return to isolationism
• The war had a profound impact on American culture, literature, and art
  • "Lost Generation" of writers, including Ernest Hemingway and F. Scott Fitzgerald, captured the disillusionment and alienation of the post-war era
• US emerged as a global economic and military power, with increased influence in international affairs
• The war's unresolved issues and the harsh treatment of Germany in the Treaty of Versailles contributed to the rise of totalitarianism and the outbreak of World War II two decades later