🌋Volcanology Unit 14 – Volcanoes and Geothermal Resources

What's the Deal with Volcanoes?

• Volcanoes are openings in the Earth's crust that allow hot magma, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from below the surface
• Occur when magma rises through cracks or weaknesses in the Earth's crust
• Magma originates in the Earth's mantle or lower crust, where temperatures and pressures are high enough to melt rock
• Melted rock becomes buoyant and rises through the denser solid rock above it
• As magma rises, dissolved gases expand and create pressure, potentially leading to explosive eruptions
• Volcanoes can be active, dormant, or extinct based on their eruption history and current activity levels
• Volcanic activity is closely linked to plate tectonics, with most volcanoes forming along plate boundaries (subduction zones, mid-ocean ridges, and rift valleys)
• Hotspots, areas of persistent volcanic activity away from plate boundaries, are thought to be caused by mantle plumes rising from deep within the Earth

Types of Volcanoes: Not All Fire Mountains Are the Same

• Shield volcanoes have broad, gently sloping flanks built by multiple layers of fluid lava flows (Mauna Loa, Hawaii)
  • Produce low-viscosity, basaltic lava that can travel long distances before cooling and solidifying
  • Erupt effusively, with lava flowing out of the volcano rather than exploding violently
• Stratovolcanoes, also known as composite volcanoes, have steep, conical shapes built by alternating layers of lava, ash, and other volcanic debris (Mount Fuji, Japan)
  • Produce high-viscosity, silica-rich lava that tends to pile up around the vent, creating a steep-sided cone
  • Erupt explosively, with violent ejections of ash, pumice, and pyroclastic flows
• Cinder cone volcanoes are small, steep-sided cones built from ejected lava fragments called cinders or scoria (Parícutin, Mexico)
• Lava domes form when viscous lava piles up around the vent, creating a steep-sided, dome-shaped feature (Lassen Peak, California)
• Calderas are large, circular depressions formed by the collapse of a volcano's summit after a massive eruption or the emptying of its magma chamber (Yellowstone, USA)
• Volcanic fields are areas with numerous small volcanoes, often cinder cones, spread over a large area (Michoacán-Guanajuato Volcanic Field, Mexico)

Inside a Volcano: The Anatomy of Earth's Hotspots

• Magma chamber is a large underground pool of molten rock beneath the volcano, where magma collects and can mix with previously erupted material
• Conduits are channels or "pipes" through which magma travels from the magma chamber to the surface
  • Conduits can be vertical or inclined, depending on the volcano's structure and the magma's path of least resistance
• Vents are openings at the Earth's surface where volcanic materials (lava, ash, gases) are erupted
  • Primary vents are located at the volcano's summit, while secondary vents can occur on the flanks or at satellite cones
• Crater is a circular depression around the main vent, often formed by explosive eruptions or collapse of the volcano's summit
• Dikes are sheet-like intrusions of magma that cut through pre-existing rock, often feeding eruptions at the surface
• Sills are horizontal intrusions of magma that form between layers of rock, can sometimes lead to the formation of lava domes or small cinder cones
• Lava tubes are cave-like channels formed when the outer surface of a lava flow cools and solidifies while the interior remains molten and drains out

Eruption Time: How Volcanoes Blow Their Top

• Effusive eruptions involve the outpouring of fluid, low-viscosity lava with minimal explosive activity (shield volcanoes, basaltic lava flows)
  • Lava flows can be fast-moving (a'a) or slow-moving (pahoehoe) depending on their composition, temperature, and gas content
• Explosive eruptions occur when magma is viscous and contains trapped gases, leading to violent fragmentation and ejection of material (stratovolcanoes, rhyolitic magmas)
  • Pyroclastic flows are ground-hugging avalanches of hot ash, pumice, and volcanic gases that can travel at high speeds (up to 700 km/h) and devastate large areas
  • Ash falls occur when fine volcanic particles are blown into the atmosphere and settle back to the ground, potentially affecting air travel and respiratory health
• Phreatomagmatic eruptions result from the interaction of magma with water (groundwater, lakes, or seawater), causing explosive fragmentation and the formation of ash and steam plumes
• Lava domes can grow slowly or collapse suddenly, generating pyroclastic flows or ash plumes
• Volcanic gases (water vapor, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide) can be released during eruptions or through fumaroles and vents, contributing to air pollution and potential health hazards
• Lahar is a destructive mudflow or debris flow composed of volcanic ash, rock, and water from a volcano, often triggered by heavy rainfall or the rapid melting of snow and ice

Volcano Detectives: Predicting and Monitoring Eruptions

• Seismic monitoring involves detecting and analyzing earthquakes and tremors that may indicate magma movement or changes in the volcano's structure
  • Volcanic earthquakes differ from tectonic earthquakes in their frequency, depth, and waveforms
  • Harmonic tremors, continuous low-frequency seismic signals, often precede or accompany eruptions
• Ground deformation measurements track changes in the volcano's shape due to magma intrusion or gas pressurization
  • Tiltmeters measure ground tilt near the volcano, which can indicate magma chamber inflation or deflation
  • GPS (Global Positioning System) and InSAR (Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar) monitor ground movement and can detect subtle changes in the volcano's surface
• Gas monitoring assesses changes in the composition and emission rates of volcanic gases, which can provide insights into the magma's depth, composition, and degassing processes
  • Sulfur dioxide ($SO_2$) is often monitored as a key indicator of volcanic activity, as it is one of the most abundant and easily detectable volcanic gases
• Thermal monitoring uses infrared cameras and satellite imagery to detect heat signatures and temperature changes that may indicate impending eruptions or lava flow activity
• Hydrological monitoring tracks changes in nearby water sources (springs, streams, lakes) that may be influenced by volcanic activity, such as changes in temperature, chemistry, or flow rate
• Integrated monitoring systems combine data from multiple techniques to provide a comprehensive assessment of the volcano's status and to inform hazard assessments and eruption forecasts

Hot Stuff: Geothermal Energy and Resources

• Geothermal energy is heat derived from the Earth's interior, which can be harnessed for electricity generation, heating, and other applications
• Geothermal systems are often associated with volcanic regions, where magma or hot igneous rocks are close to the surface
• Hydrothermal systems occur when groundwater is heated by magma or hot rocks, creating hot springs, geysers, and fumaroles (Yellowstone, USA)
  • High-temperature hydrothermal systems (>150°C) can be used for electricity generation, while low-temperature systems (<150°C) are suitable for direct heating applications (space heating, agriculture, aquaculture)
• Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) involve injecting water into hot, dry rock formations to create artificial geothermal reservoirs, which can then be used for electricity generation
• Geothermal heat pumps use the stable temperature of the shallow subsurface to heat and cool buildings, providing an energy-efficient alternative to conventional HVAC systems
• Geothermal resources also include mineral-rich brines and steam, which can be used for the extraction of valuable minerals (lithium, silica, rare earth elements) or industrial processes
• Geothermal exploration techniques include geological mapping, geophysical surveys (seismic, gravity, magnetic), and exploratory drilling to assess the potential and characteristics of geothermal reservoirs
• Sustainable geothermal development requires careful management of reservoir pressure, fluid reinjection, and potential environmental impacts (induced seismicity, groundwater contamination, land subsidence)

Living on the Edge: Volcanic Hazards and Risk Management

• Lava flows can destroy infrastructure and vegetation, but their relatively slow speed often allows people to evacuate safely
  • Lava flow hazards depend on the flow's velocity, thickness, and path, which are influenced by topography and lava composition
• Pyroclastic flows are one of the deadliest volcanic hazards due to their high speed, temperature, and destructive power
  • Pyroclastic surges, dilute, turbulent flows of ash and gas, can travel even farther than dense pyroclastic flows and surmount topographic barriers
• Ash falls can cause respiratory problems, damage crops and infrastructure, and disrupt transportation (especially aviation) over large areas
  • Wet ash can create heavy, cement-like deposits that can collapse roofs and power lines
• Lahars can travel long distances along river valleys, destroying bridges, roads, and buildings in their path
  • Lahar hazards can persist long after an eruption, as loose volcanic debris can be remobilized by heavy rainfall or snowmelt
• Volcanic gases and acid rain can cause respiratory issues, damage vegetation, and contaminate water supplies
• Volcanic tsunamis can be triggered by underwater explosions, caldera collapses, or landslides, posing a risk to coastal communities
• Risk management strategies include hazard mapping, monitoring and early warning systems, land-use planning, and public education and preparedness
  • Hazard maps delineate areas at risk from various volcanic hazards based on historical eruptions, geological mapping, and numerical simulations
  • Evacuation plans and designated shelters can help protect communities during volcanic crises
• Effective communication between scientists, authorities, and the public is crucial for reducing volcanic risks and promoting resilience

Famous Volcanoes: Earth's Greatest Fireworks

• Mount Vesuvius, Italy: Infamous for its catastrophic eruption in 79 AD that buried the Roman cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum
• Krakatoa, Indonesia: Its massive 1883 eruption and subsequent caldera collapse generated devastating tsunamis and global climatic effects
• Mount St. Helens, USA: The deadliest and most economically destructive volcanic event in U.S. history, known for its spectacular lateral blast in 1980
• Kilauea, Hawaii: One of the world's most active volcanoes, known for its continuous lava flows and lava lakes
• Eyjafjallajökull, Iceland: Its 2010 eruption disrupted European air travel for weeks due to the widespread dispersal of fine ash
• Mount Pinatubo, Philippines: Its 1991 eruption was the second-largest of the 20th century, causing global cooling and widespread destruction
• Yellowstone, USA: A supervolcano with a history of massive explosive eruptions, famous for its geysers and hot springs
• Ol Doinyo Lengai, Tanzania: The world's only active carbonatite volcano, known for its unique, low-temperature, highly fluid lava