👩🏻‍🦰Women and World History Unit 11 – Women & Labor in the Global Economy

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Feminization of labor refers to the increasing participation of women in the paid workforce, particularly in low-wage, low-skill jobs
• Gender wage gap is the difference in earnings between men and women for comparable work, often expressed as a percentage of men's earnings
  • Globally, women earn on average 20% less than men for the same work
• Informal economy includes economic activities that are not regulated or protected by the state, such as street vending, domestic work, and home-based production
  • Women are overrepresented in the informal economy, which lacks job security and benefits
• Unpaid care work encompasses tasks such as childcare, eldercare, and household maintenance, which are disproportionately performed by women
• Occupational segregation is the concentration of women and men in different types of jobs, often with women in lower-paying, less prestigious positions
• Glass ceiling refers to the invisible barriers that prevent women from advancing to higher-level positions in their careers, despite having the qualifications and experience
• Intersectionality examines how multiple forms of discrimination (gender, race, class, etc.) intersect and compound to create unique experiences of oppression

Historical Context of Women's Labor

• Prior to industrialization, women's labor was primarily confined to the domestic sphere and agricultural work
• The Industrial Revolution (late 18th to 19th century) drew women into factory work, often under exploitative conditions
  • Women and children were preferred as factory workers due to their perceived docility and lower wages
• During World War I and World War II, women entered the workforce in large numbers to fill positions vacated by men serving in the military
  • This challenged traditional gender roles and demonstrated women's capabilities in various industries
• In the post-war period, many women were pushed back into the domestic sphere as men returned to the workforce
• The 1960s and 1970s saw the rise of the women's liberation movement, which advocated for equal employment opportunities and pay
• Globalization and the rise of neoliberal economic policies (1980s-present) have led to the feminization of labor in export-oriented industries (garment manufacturing, electronics assembly)

Global Economic Systems and Their Impact

• Capitalism, the dominant global economic system, has shaped women's labor participation and experiences
  • Capitalism's drive for profit often leads to the exploitation of women's labor as a source of cheap, flexible labor
• Neoliberal policies, such as trade liberalization and deregulation, have accelerated the feminization of labor in developing countries
  • Export-oriented industrialization has led to the growth of female-dominated industries (garment manufacturing)
• Structural adjustment programs (SAPs) imposed by international financial institutions (World Bank, IMF) have disproportionately affected women
  • SAPs often require cuts to social spending, which increases women's unpaid care work burden
• The rise of the service sector and the gig economy has led to the precariousness of women's employment
  • Women are overrepresented in low-wage, part-time, and temporary jobs with little job security or benefits
• Globalization has also facilitated the growth of global care chains, where women from developing countries migrate to provide care work in developed countries
  • This often comes at the cost of leaving their own families behind and facing exploitation and abuse

Women in the Workforce: Trends and Challenges

• Women's labor force participation has increased globally, but significant disparities remain across regions and sectors
• Women are overrepresented in the informal economy, which lacks job security, benefits, and legal protections
  • In developing countries, up to 95% of women's employment is in the informal sector
• Occupational segregation persists, with women concentrated in low-wage, low-skill jobs (care work, clerical work, service sector)
• The gender wage gap remains a persistent challenge, with women earning less than men for comparable work
  • The gap is wider for women of color and those with lower levels of education
• Women face discrimination and harassment in the workplace, which can limit their career advancement and overall well-being
• Unpaid care work continues to be a significant burden for women, limiting their ability to participate fully in the paid workforce
  • Women spend up to three times as many hours on unpaid care work as men

Case Studies from Different Regions

• Bangladesh's garment industry is a prime example of the feminization of labor in export-oriented manufacturing
  • Women constitute over 80% of the workforce in this sector, often working in unsafe conditions for low wages
• In Latin America, women have been at the forefront of organizing in the informal economy, such as street vendors' associations in Peru and waste pickers' cooperatives in Brazil
  • These organizations have fought for recognition, rights, and improved working conditions
• In the United States, the Fight for $15 movement has highlighted the struggles of low-wage workers, particularly women of color in the fast-food industry
  • The movement has advocated for a living wage and the right to unionize
• In Italy, the "Colf di Quartiere" (Neighborhood Domestic Workers) project has aimed to professionalize and valorize domestic work, which is primarily performed by migrant women
  • The project provides training, job placement, and support services to domestic workers
• In South Africa, the "Marikana" women's strike in 2012 brought attention to the gendered dimensions of labor struggles in the mining industry
  • Women in mining communities face unique challenges, such as sexual violence and the burden of care work when male family members are injured or killed on the job

Intersectionality and Labor Issues

• Intersectionality recognizes that women's experiences in the workforce are shaped by multiple, intersecting forms of oppression (gender, race, class, etc.)
• Women of color often face compounded discrimination and are concentrated in the lowest-paying, least secure jobs
  • In the United States, Black women and Latinas earn significantly less than white women and men for comparable work
• Migrant women workers are particularly vulnerable to exploitation and abuse, as they often lack legal protections and face language and cultural barriers
  • Domestic workers, who are primarily migrant women, are often excluded from labor laws and face isolation and abuse in private homes
• Women with disabilities face additional barriers to employment, such as discrimination, lack of accommodations, and lower pay
  • They are also more likely to be employed in the informal sector and to face sexual harassment in the workplace
• LGBTQ+ women face discrimination based on both their gender and sexual orientation or gender identity
  • They may face harassment, unequal pay, and limited career advancement opportunities

Policy and Legal Frameworks

• International labor standards, such as those set by the International Labour Organization (ILO), provide a framework for protecting women's rights in the workplace
  • The ILO's Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) addresses discrimination in employment
• National labor laws vary in their coverage and enforcement of women's rights in the workplace
  • Some countries have enacted laws on equal pay, maternity leave, and protection against sexual harassment, but implementation remains a challenge
• Collective bargaining and unionization can be effective tools for advancing women's rights in the workplace
  • However, women are often underrepresented in trade unions and leadership positions
• Quotas and affirmative action policies have been used to increase women's representation in male-dominated fields and leadership positions
  • These policies have had mixed results and can face backlash and accusations of reverse discrimination
• Legislation on unpaid care work, such as paid family leave and subsidized childcare, can help to redistribute the burden of care and support women's employment
  • However, these policies are not universally available and often have eligibility restrictions

Future Outlook and Emerging Trends

• The COVID-19 pandemic has disproportionately affected women's employment, with women being more likely to lose their jobs or reduce their hours
  • The pandemic has also increased women's unpaid care work burden, as schools and care facilities have closed
• The gig economy and platform work (Uber, Deliveroo) are growing sectors that have significant implications for women's labor
  • While these jobs offer flexibility, they often lack benefits, job security, and legal protections
• The rise of automation and artificial intelligence may disproportionately impact women's jobs, particularly in the service sector and clerical work
  • Ensuring women's access to education and training in STEM fields will be critical for adapting to technological change
• The care economy is a growing sector that has the potential to create jobs and support women's employment
  • Investing in care infrastructure and valuing care work as skilled labor can help to improve working conditions and wages in this sector
• Achieving gender equality in the workplace will require a multi-faceted approach, including legal reforms, policy interventions, and cultural shifts
  • Engaging men and boys as allies and challenging gender stereotypes will be critical for creating more inclusive and equitable workplaces