11.3 Islamization and Religious Rule under Islam

The Abbasid Caliphate marked a turning point in Islamic history. They overthrew the Umayyads, moved the capital to Baghdad, and ushered in a golden age of learning and culture. This shift eastward brought Persian influences into Islamic governance and society.

The Abbasids' translation movement was a game-changer. They preserved and built upon ancient knowledge, fostering advancements in science, math, and philosophy. This intellectual flourishing laid the groundwork for future developments in both the Islamic world and Europe.

The Abbasid Caliphate

Abbasid consolidation of power and eastward shift

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• The Abbasid Revolution (747-750 CE) overthrew the Umayyad Caliphate
  • Abbasids were descendants of Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abdul-Muttalib
  • Gained support from Shia Muslims and non-Arab Muslims who felt marginalized under Umayyad rule (Persians, Berbers)
• Abbasids moved the capital from Damascus to Baghdad (762 CE)
  • Shift of power from Syria to Iraq
  • Baghdad became a center of learning and culture (House of Wisdom)
• Consolidation of power through centralized bureaucracy
  • Vizierate system with ministers overseeing different aspects of government (finance, military, judiciary)
  • Use of Persian administrative practices and personnel (diwans, postal service)
• Golden Age of Islam under Harun al-Rashid (r. 786-809) and his successors
  • Expansion of trade and economic prosperity (Silk Road, Indian Ocean trade)
  • Patronage of arts, literature, and sciences (poetry, calligraphy, astronomy, medicine)

Significance of the Abbasid Translation Movement

• House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Hikma) established in Baghdad
  • Library and translation center
  • Attracted scholars from various regions and faiths (Muslims, Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians)
• Translation of Greek, Persian, and Indian texts into Arabic
  • Works of philosophy (Aristotle, Plato), mathematics (Euclid), astronomy (Ptolemy), medicine (Galen), and literature (Panchatantra)
  • Preservation of classical knowledge that might have been lost otherwise
• Synthesis of knowledge from different cultures
  • Integration of foreign ideas into Islamic thought (Hellenistic philosophy, Indian numerals)
  • Development of new fields such as algebra (al-Khwarizmi) and trigonometry (al-Biruni)
• Influence on European intellectual development
  • Transmission of ancient knowledge to medieval Europe through Arabic translations (Toledo School of Translators)
  • Stimulation of Renaissance and Scientific Revolution (rediscovery of classical texts, advancements in mathematics and science)

Sunni and Shia Islam

Core beliefs and origins

• Dispute over succession after Muhammad's death in 632 CE
  • Sunnis believe Abu Bakr was the rightful successor as the first caliph
  • Shias believe Ali, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, was the legitimate successor
• Sunni Islam
  • Majority branch of Islam (85-90% of Muslims worldwide)
  • Believe in the authority of the Quran and the Sunnah (teachings and practices of Muhammad)
  • Recognize the first four caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali) as rightful successors (Rashidun Caliphate)
• Shia Islam
  • Minority branch of Islam (10-15% of Muslims worldwide)
  • Believe in the authority of the Quran and the Ahl al-Bayt (family of Muhammad)
  • Recognize Ali and his descendants (Imams) as the legitimate successors
  • Concept of Imamate: Imams are divinely appointed leaders with special knowledge and authority (infallibility, intercession)
• Differences in religious practices and customs
  • Shias have additional prayers and rituals, such as mourning the martyrdom of Husayn (Ali's son) during Ashura (self-flagellation, passion plays)
  • Shias allow temporary marriage (mut'ah) while Sunnis do not
• Political and social implications of the Sunni-Shia divide
  • Sectarian conflicts and power struggles throughout Islamic history (Umayyad-Alid rivalry, Safavid-Ottoman wars)
  • Contemporary examples: Iraq (Saddam Hussein's persecution of Shias), Syria (Alawite-led government vs. Sunni opposition), Lebanon (Hezbollah), and Yemen (Houthi rebels)